1945 Palestine HOLOCAUST Jewish SHANA TOVA CARD Photo BUCHENWALD Israel JUDAICA

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1945 Palestine HOLOCAUST Jewish SHANA TOVA CARD Photo BUCHENWALD Israel JUDAICA:
$135.00

DESCRIPTION : Here for saleisaTHRILLING photographed SHANA TOVA card.It\'s avintageoriginal 1945 Eretz Israel ( Also refered to as Palestine ) SHANAHTOVAH greeting cards ( New year greeting card ) which was published and issuedby \"Palphot\" Herzlia . It\'s a REAL PHOTO of JEWISH SURVIVORS from theBUCHENWALD concentration death camp who reached HAIFA harbor in May 15th 1945 ,Awaiting to be arraested by British soldiers of the British Mandate ( Forreference pls look at : ( July 15, 1945. Buchenwald survivors arrive in Haifa to be arrested by the British. Source: To thePromised Land by Uri Dan (Doubleday, 1987) ISBN 0385245971 p.58 ) . The card was published andissued around mid-late 1940\'s after the Holocaust , And the End of WW2 , Beforethe establishment of the STATE of ISRAEL and the 1948 WAR of INDEPENDENCE . Thecard is folded . Copyright by Palphot. \"Made in Palestine\" . A REALPHOTO.Dimensions around2.5 x 4\" while folded, Twice as bigwhile opened. Hand written Hebrew Shana Tova greeting for newcomers immigrations dated 1946. Excellent condition. Better than the scanned one. (Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) .Item will besent in a special protective rigid sealed packaging.

PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal .SHIPPMENT : Shipp worldwide via registered airmail is $ 17 .( Except for certain European countries - Please watch instructions or contact me for details )Card will be sent inside a protective envelope . Will be sent within3-5 days after payment . Kindly note that duration of Int\'l registered airmail is around 14 days.

Rosh Hashanah cards, those annual holiday greetings sent each September to friends and family, are pretty much obsolete. Get The Times of Israel\'s Daily Edition by email and never miss our top stories Free Sign up!But until recently, sending greeting cards were as elemental to Rosh Hashanah preparations as hearing the call of the shofar or eating honey cake. In fact, people sent New Year’s greeting cards for more than a century, said Israel Museum curator Rachel Sarfati, reflecting on “Each Year Anew: A Century of Shanah Tovah Cards,” a new exhibit curated on the subject. “It was a time when this was the form of communication between people,” said Sarfati. “Our collection ends with the other forms of communication that exist now.” The exhibit is based on the Haim Stayer collection of greeting cards, which tripled the museum’s original collection to more than 3,000 cards, said Sarfati. The museum’s first collection of New Year’s cards was based on what it initially received from the Bezalel National Museum, the art museum that formed the core of the Israel Museum’s original collection. Three-dimensional Shanah Tovah cards, 1910–19. Printed in Germany for the American Jewish market (Courtesy Israel Museum) In its heyday, New Year’s cards offered iconic snapshots of graphic design styles and images that harkened to the relevant moments of the previous year. It was a custom first popularized in Germany, wrote Sarfati in the catalog accompanying the exhibit, where the printing press industry first flourished. The German printing companies also exported cards to the American Jewish market at the turn of the 20th century. Yet the tradition of sending New Year’s greeting cards had its roots in Jewish law, noted Sarfati. Talmudist Yaakov ben Moshe Levi Moelin, also known as Maharil, the Hebrew acronym for “Our Teacher, the Rabbi, Yaakov Levi,” was a leading German rabbinic authority in the 14th century who wrote about sending Rosh Hashanah greetings, wishing one’s friends and loved ones to be inscribed in the book of good life, one of the major themes of the holiday liturgy. Romantic greetings for the New Year, 1928, printed in Germany for Verlag Central Company, Warsaw (Courtesy Israel Museum) It was a custom that ended up being carried into the Old Yishuv, the early community of pre-state Palestine, wrote Sarfati, and eventually was adapted by new immigrants to Israel, even by those who didn’t recognize the ritual from their own home countries. The Israeli printing industry eventually became a leader in the creation of New Year’s cards and calendars, and the business reached an all-time high in the 1950s and 1960s, when vendors would appear before the holiday selling stacks of cards from sidewalk stall. The Israel Postal Service would hire extra workers to help sort and deliver the ten million sacks of mail that piled up before the holiday. The cards also offered a form of anonymous folk art, said Sarfati. Graphic artists would create the cards, decorated with iconic images of Israel, creating a kind of “creative outlet on a wide spectrum of subjects,” she said. The cards were a method of expressing Israelis’ feelings “about everything,” she added, from joy over the creation of the state of Israel and belief in its leaders to statements of satire and caricatures of political leaders in later years. A Rosh Hashanah greeting featuring Elvis Presley in a photo from the 1960s, made in Israel in the 1970s (Courtesy Israel Museum) In the earlier years, there were images of the Israeli landscape, pioneering kibbutz farmers, and later, portraits of Madonna, Michael Jackson and Elvis. Cards from the early 1950s expressed wishes for proper housing for new immigrants or an earlier version of the selfie, with self-portraits of the well-wisher portrayed against the Western Wall or Tel Aviv beach. Now that email and social media reign, the annual greeting cards are often relegated to e-cards, and often don’t get sent at all, as people instead wish each other a happy new Year in a Facebook thread or with a selection of emojii in a Whatsapp text message. But whatever the method of communication, it’s the message that counts. Happy New Year. “Each Year Anew” opened on August 19 and is located in the library reading room of the museum.The widespread custom of sending Jewish New Year\'s cards ( SHANA TOVA ) dates to the Middle Ages, thus predating by centuries Christian New Year\'s cards, popular in Europe and the United States only since the 19th century. The custom is first mentioned in the Book of Customs of Rabbi Jacob, son of Moses *Moellin (1360–1427), the spiritual leader of German Jewry in the 14th century (Minhagei Maharil, first ed. Sabionetta, 1556). Based on the familiar talmudic dictum in tractate Rosh ha-Shanah 16b concerning the \"setting down\" of one\'s fate in one of the three Heavenly books that are opened on the Jewish New Year, the Maharil and other German rabbis recommended that letters sent during the month of Elul should open with the blessing \"May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year.\" Outside of Germany and Austria, other Jewish communities, such as the Sephardi and Oriental Jews, only adopted this custom in recent generations. The German-Jewish custom reached widespread popularity with the invention – in Vienna, 1869 – of the postal card. The peak period of the illustrated postcard, called in the literature \"The Postal Card Craze\" (1898–1918), also marks the flourishing of the Jewish New Year\'s card, produced in three major centers: Germany, Poland, and the U.S. (chiefly in New York). The German cards are frequently illustrated with biblical themes. The makers of Jewish cards in Warsaw, on the other hand, preferred to depict the religious life of East European Jewry in a nostalgic manner. Though the images on their cards were often theatrically staged in a studio with amateur actors, they preserve views and customs lost in the Holocaust. The mass immigration of the Jews from Eastern Europe to the United States in the first decades of the 20th century gave a new boost to the production of the cards. Some depicted America as the new homeland, opening her arms to the new immigrants, others emphasized Zionist ideology and depicted contemporary views of Ereẓ Israel. The Jews of 19th c. Ereẓ Israel (\"the old yishuv\"), even prior to the invention of the postal card, sent tablets of varying sizes with wishes and images for the New Year, often sent abroad for fundraising purposes. These tablets depicted the \"Four Holy Cities\" as well as holy sites in and around Jerusalem. A popular biblical motif was the Binding of Isaac, often taking place against the background of the Temple Mount and accompanied by the appropriate prayer for Rosh ha-Shanah. Also common were views of the yeshivot or buildings of the organizations which produced these tablets. In the 1920s and 1930s the cards highlighted the acquisition of the land and the toil on it as well as \"secular\" views of the proud new pioneers. Not only did this basically religious custom continue and become more popular, but the new cards attest to a burst of creativity and originality on the subject matter as well as in design and the selection of accompanying text. Over the years, since the establishment of the State of Israel, the custom has continued to flourish, with the scenes and wishes on the cards developing as social needs and situations changed. The last two decades of the 20th century have seen a decline in the mailing of New Year\'s cards in Israel, superseded by phone calls or internet messages. In other countries, especially the U.S., cards with traditional symbols are still commonly sent by mail, more elaborately designed than in the past. Thus, the simple and naïve New Year\'s card vividly reflects the dramatic changes in the life of the Jewish people over the last generations. BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Arbel (ed.), Blue and White in Color: Visual Images of Zionism, 1897–1947 (1997); J. Branska, \'Na Dobry Rok badzcie zapisani\': Zydowskie karty noworoczne firmy Jehudia (1997); P. Goodman, \"Rosh Hashanah Greeting Cards,\" in: P. Goodman (ed.), The Rosh Hashanah Anthology (1970), 274–79, 356; S. Mintz and S. Sabar, Past Perfect: The Jewish Experience in Early 20th Century Postcards (1998); idem, \"Between Poland and Germany: Jewish Religious Practices in Illustrated Postcards of the Early Twentieth Century,\" in: Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry, 16 (2003), 137–66; idem, \"The Custom of Sending Jewish New Year Cards: Its History and Artistic Development,\" in: Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Folklore, 19–20 (1997/98), 85–110 (Heb.); E. Smith, \"Greetings From Faith: Early 20th c. American Jewish New Year Postcards,\" in: D. Morgan and S.M. Promey (eds.), The Visual Culture of American Religions (2001), 229–48, 350–56; D. Tartakover, Shanah Tovah: 101 Kartisei Berakhah la-Shanah ha-Ḥadashah (Heb., 1978); M. Tzur (ed.), Ba-Shanah ha-Ba\'ah: Shanot Tovot min ha-Kibbutz (2001). ******* ***** Rosh Hashanah (Hebrew: ראש השנה‎, literally \"head of the year,\" Biblical: [ˈɾoʃ haʃːɔˈnɔh], Israeli: [ˈʁoʃ haʃaˈna], Yiddish: [ˈrɔʃəˈʃɔnə]) is a Jewish holiday commonly referred to as the \"Jewish New Year.\" It is observed on the first day of Tishrei, the seventh month of the Hebrew calendar,[1] as ordained in the Torah, in Leviticus 23:24. Rosh Hashanah is the first of the High Holidays or Yamim Noraim (\"Days of Awe\"), or Asseret Yemei Teshuva (The Ten Days of Repentance) which are days specifically set aside to focus on repentance that conclude with the holiday of Yom Kippur. Rosh Hashanah is the start of the civil year in the Hebrew calendar (one of four \"new year\" observances that define various legal \"years\" for different purposes). It is the new year for people, animals, and legal contracts. The Mishnah also sets this day aside as the new year for calculating calendar years and sabbatical (shmita) and jubilee (yovel) years. Rosh Hashanah commemorates the creation of man whereas five days earlier, on 25 of Elul, marks the first day of creation.[2] The Mishnah, the core text of Judaism\'s oral Torah, contains the first known reference to Rosh Hashanah as the \"day of judgment.\" In the Talmud tractate on Rosh Hashanah it states that three books of account are opened on Rosh Hashanah, wherein the fate of the wicked, the righteous, and those of an intermediate class are recorded. The names of the righteous are immediately inscribed in the book of life, and they are sealed \"to live.\" The middle class are allowed a respite of ten days, until Yom Kippur, to repent and become righteous; the wicked are \"blotted out of the book of the living.\"[3] Rosh Hashanah is observed as a day of rest (Leviticus 23:24) and the activities prohibited on Shabbat are also prohibited on Rosh Hashanah. Rosh Hashanah is characterized by the blowing of the shofar,[4] a trumpet made from a ram\'s horn, intended to awaken the listener from his or her \"slumber\" and alert them to the coming judgment.[5] There are a number of additions to the regular Jewish service, most notably an extended repetition of the Amidah prayer for both Shacharit and Mussaf. The traditional Hebrew greeting on Rosh Hashanah is שנה טובה shana tova [ʃaˈna toˈva] for \"a good year\", or shana tova umetukah for \"a good and sweet year.\" Because Jews are being judged by God for the coming year, a longer greeting translates as \"may you be written and sealed for a good year\" (ketiva ve-chatima tovah). During the afternoon of the first day the practice of tashlikh is observed, in which prayers are recited near natural flowing water, and one\'s sins are symbolically cast into the water. Many also have the custom to throw bread or pebbles into the water, to symbolize the \"casting off\" of sins. Names and origins The term \"Rosh Hashanah\" does not appear in the Torah. Leviticus 23:24 refers to the festival of the first day of the seventh month as \"Zicaron Terua\" (\"a memorial with the blowing of horns\"). Numbers 29:1 calls the festival Yom Terua, (\"Day of blowing the horn\") and defines the nature of animal sacrifices that were to be performed.[6][7] (In Ezekiel 40:1 there is a general reference to the time of Yom Kippur as the \"beginning of the year.\"[6] but it is not referring specifically to the holiday of Rosh HaShanah.) The Hebrew Bible defines Rosh Hashanah as a one-day observance, and since days in the Hebrew calendar begin at sundown, the beginning of Rosh Hashanah is at sundown at the end of 29 Elul. The rules of the Hebrew calendar are designed such that the first day of Rosh Hashanah will never occur on the first, fourth, or sixth days of the Jewish week[8] (ie Sunday, Wednesday or Friday) Since the time of the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE and the time of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai, normative Jewish law appears to be that Rosh Hashanah is to be celebrated for two days, due to the difficulty of determining the date of the new moon.[6] Nonetheless, there is some evidence that Rosh Hashanah was celebrated on a single day in Israel as late as the thirteenth century CE.[9] Orthodox and Conservative Judaism now generally observe Rosh Hashanah for the first two days of Tishrei, even in Israel where all other Jewish holidays dated from the new moon (except Rosh Hodesh - the New Month, on which Rosh Hashanah falls) last only one day. The two days of Rosh Hashanah are said to constitute \"Yoma Arichtah\" (Aramaic: \"one long day\"). The observance of a second day is a later addition and does not follow from the literal reading of Leviticus. In Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism, some communities only observe the first day of Rosh Hashanah, while others observe two days. Karaite Jews, who do not recognize Jewish oral law and rely solely on Biblical authority, observe only one day on the first of Tishrei, since the second day is not mentioned in the Torah. Laws on the form and use of the shofar and laws related to the religious services during the festival of Rosh Hashanah are described in Rabbinic literature such as the Mishnah that formed the basis of the tractate \"Rosh HaShana\" in both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud. This also contains the most important rules concerning the calendar year.[10] In Jewish liturgy Rosh Hashanah is described as \"the day of judgment\" (Yom ha-Din) and \"the day of remembrance\" (Yom ha-Zikkaron). Some midrashic descriptions depict God as sitting upon a throne, while books containing the deeds of all humanity are opened for review, and each person passing in front of Him for evaluation of his or her deeds. Rosh Hashanah occurs 163 days after the first day of Passover (Pesach). In terms of the Gregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Rosh Hashanah can fall is September 5, as happened in 1899 and will happen again in 2013. The latest Rosh Hashanah can occur relative to the Gregorian dates is on October 5, as happened in 1967 and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew calendar and the Gregorian calendar will result in Rosh Hashanah falling no earlier than September 6. Historical origins In the earliest times the Hebrew year began in autumn with the opening of the economic year. There followed in regular succession the seasons of seed-sowing, growth and ripening of the corn (here meaning any grain) under the influence of the former and the latter rains, harvest and ingathering of the fruits. In harmony with this was the order of the great agricultural festivals, according to the oldest legislation, namely, the feast of unleavened bread at the beginning of the barley harvest, in the month of Abib; the feast of harvest, seven weeks later; and the feast of ingathering at the going out or turn of the year (See Exodus 23:14-17; Deuteronomy 16:1-16). It is likely that the new year was celebrated from ancient times in some special way. The earliest reference to such a custom is, probably, in the account of the vision of Ezekiel (Ezek 40:1). This took place at the beginning of the year, on the tenth day of the month (Tishri). On the same day the beginning of the year of jubilee was to be proclaimed by the blowing of trumpets (Lev 25:9). According to the Septuagint rendering of Ezek 44:20, special sacrifices were to be offered on the first day of the seventh month as well as on the first day of the first month. This first day of the seventh month was appointed by the Law to be \"a day of blowing of trumpets\". There was to be a holy convocation; no servile work was to be done; and special sacrifices were to be offered (Lev 23:23-25; Num 29:1-6). This day was not expressly called New-Year\'s Day, but it was evidently so regarded by the Jews at a very early period. Rosh Hashanah will occur on the following days of the Gregorian calendar: Jewish Year 5769: sunset September 29, 2008 - nightfall October 1, 2008 Jewish Year 5770: sunset September 18, 2009 - nightfall September 20, 2009 Jewish Year 5771: sunset September 8, 2010 - nightfall September 10, 2010 Jewish Year 5772: sunset September 28, 2011 - nightfall September 30, 2011 Jewish Year 5773: sunset September 16, 2012 - nightfall September 18, 2012 Religious observance and customs Rosh Hashanah is a day of rest (Leviticus 23:24): with some variations, the activities prohibited on Shabbat are also prohibited on all major Jewish holidays, including Rosh Hashanah. Rosh Hashanah is characterized by the blowing of the shofar,[11] a trumpet made from a ram\'s horn. Preceding month The Yamim Noraim are preceded by the month of Elul, during which Jews are supposed to begin a self-examination and repentance, a process that culminates in the ten days of the Yamim Noraim known as beginning with Rosh Hashanah and ending with the holiday of Yom Kippur. The shofar is blown in traditional communities every morning for the entire month of Elul, the month preceding Rosh Hashanah. The sound of the shofar is intended to awaken the listener from his or her \"slumber\" and alert them to the coming judgment.[12] Orthodox and some Conservative Jewish communities do not blow the shofar on Shabbat.[13] In the period leading up to the Yamim Noraim (Hebrew, \"days of awe\") penitential prayers, called selichot, are recited. Erev Rosh Hashanah The day before Rosh Hashanah is known as Erev Rosh Hashanah in Hebrew. It falls on the 29th day of the Hebrew month of Elul, the day before the 1st of Tishrei. Some communities have the customs to perform Hatarat nedarim - a nullification of vows - after the morning prayer services during the morning of Erev Rosh Hashanah. The mood becomes festive but serious in anticipation of the new year and the synagogue services. Many Orthodox men have the custom to immerse in a mikveh in honor of the coming day. Day of Rosh Hashanah On Rosh Hashanah itself, religious poems, called piyyuttim, are added to the regular services. Special prayer books for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, called the mahzor (plural mahzorim), have developed over the years. Many poems refer to Psalms 81:4: \"Blow the shofar on the [first day of the] month, when the [moon] is covered for our holiday\". Rosh Hashanah has a number of additions to the regular service, most notably an extended repetition of the Amidah prayer for both Shacharit and Mussaf. The Shofar is blown during Mussaf at several intervals. (In many synagogues, even little children come and hear the Shofar being blown.) Biblical verses are recited at each point. According to the Mishnah, 10 verses (each) are said regarding kingship, remembrance, and the shofar itself, each accompanied by the blowing of the shofar. A variety of piyyutim, medieval penitential prayers, are recited regarding themes of repentance. The Alenu prayer is recited during the repetition of the Mussaf Amidah. There are four different sounds that the Shofar makes: Tekiah (one long sound) Shevarim (3 broken sounds) Teruah (many short, staccato sounds, usually 9) Tekiah Gedolah (a very long sound) During the afternoon of the first day occurs the practice of tashlikh, in which prayers are recited near natural flowing water, and one\'s sins are symbolically cast into the water. Many also have the custom to throw bread or pebbles into the water, to symbolize the \"casting off\" of sins. In some communities, if the first day of Rosh Hashanah occurs on Shabbat, tashlikh is postponed until the second day. The traditional service for tashlikh is recited individually and includes the prayer \"Who is like unto you, O God...And You will cast all their sins into the depths of the sea\", and Biblical passages including Isaiah 11:9 (\"They will not injure nor destroy in all My holy mountain, for the earth shall be as full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea\") and Psalms 118:5-9, 121 and 130, as well as personal prayers. Rosh Hashana Seder and Symbolic Foods Rosh Hashanah meals often include apples and honey, to symbolize a sweet new year. Various other foods with a symbolic meaning may be served, depending on local minhag (custom), such as tongue or other meat from the head of an animal (to symbolize the head of the year). Other symbolic foods are eaten in a special Rosha Hashana Seder, particularly in the Sephardic and Mizrahi communities. Symbolic foods are eaten in a ceremony called the Yehi Rasones or Yehi Ratzones[15][16][17]. Yehi Rason / Ratzon means \"May it be Your will\", and is the name of the ceremony because the names of the symbolic foods eating have names that are puns in Hebrew or Aramaic. Each pun serves as a desire or prayer that God will fulfill that desire represented by the pun. Foods consumed during the Yehi Rasones vary depending on the community. Some of the symbolic foods eaten are dates, black-eyed beans, leek, spinach and gourd, all of which are mentioned in the Talmud. Pomegranates are used in many traditions: the use of apples and honey is a late medieval Ashkenazi addition, though it is now almost universally accepted. Typically, round challah bread is served, to symbolize the cycle of the year. Gefilte fish and Lekach are commonly served by Ashkenazic Jews on this holiday. On the second night, new fruits are served to warrant inclusion of the shehecheyanu blessing, the saying of which would otherwise be doubtful (as the second day is part of the \"long day\" mentioned above). In rabbinic literature Philo, in his treatise on the festivals, calls Rosh Hashanah the festival of the sacred moon and feast of the trumpets, and explains the blowing of the trumpets as being a memorial of the giving of the Torah and a reminder of God\'s benefits to mankind in general (\"De Septennario,\" § 22). The Mishnah, the core text of Judaism\'s oral Torah, contains the first known reference to the \"day of judgment\". It says: \"Four times in the year the world is judged: On Passover a decree is passed on the produce of the soil; on Shavuot, on the fruits of the trees; on Rosh Hashanah all men pass before Him (\"God\"); and on the Feast of Tabernacles a decree is passed on the rain of the year. R. Yaakov Kamenetsky explains that in earlier generations it was considered preferable not to reveal that it was a \"day of judgment\" so as not to mix any other feeling into \"the day of the coronation of G-d\". In later generations as people lost touch with the significance of the day it was necessary to reveal that it was also \"the day of judgment\" so that people would approach the holiday with proper awe and respect. (B\'Mechitzot Rabbenu) According to rabbinic tradition, the creation of the world completed on 1 Tishrei. The observance of the 1 Tishrei as Rosh Hashanah is based principally on the mention of \"zikkaron\" (= \"memorial day\"; Lev 23:24) and the reference of Ezra to the day as one \"holy to the Lord\" (Neh 8:9) seem to point. The passage in Psalms 81:5 referring to the solemn feast which is held on New Moon Day, when the shofar is sounded, as a day of \"mishpat\" (judgment) of \"the God of Jacob\" is taken to indicate the character of Rosh Hashanah . In Jewish thought, Rosh Hashanah is the most important judgment day, on which all the inhabitants of the world pass for judgment before the Creator, as sheep pass for examination before the shepherd. It is written in the Talmud, in the tractate on Rosh Hashanah that three books of account are opened on Rosh Hashanah , wherein the fate of the wicked, the righteous, and those of an intermediate class are recorded. The names of the righteous are immediately inscribed in the book of life, and they are sealed \"to live.\" The middle class are allowed a respite of ten days till Yom Kippur, to repent and become righteous ; the wicked are \"blotted out of the book of the living\" (Psalms 69:29). The zodiac sign of the balance for Tishrei is claimed to indicate the scales of judgment, balancing the meritorious against the wicked acts of the person judged. The taking of an annual inventory of accounts on Rosh Hashanah is adduced by Rabbi Nahman ben Isaac from the passage in Deut 11:12, which says that the care of God is directed from \"the beginning of the year even unto the end of the year\". 1 Tishrei was considered as the beginning of Creation. It is said in the Talmud that on Rosh Hashanah the means of sustenance of every person are apportioned for the ensuing year; so also are his destined losses. The Zohar, a medieval work of Kabbalah, lays stress on the universal observance of two days, and states that the two passages in Job 1:6 and Job 2:1, \"when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord,\" refer to the first and second days of Rosh Hashanah , observed by the Heavenly Court before the Almighty. (Zohar, Pinchas, p. 231a) Traditional Rosh Hashanah greetings Shana Tova (pronounced [ʃaˈna toˈva]) is the traditional greeting on Rosh Hashanah which in Hebrew means \"A Good Year.\" Shana Tova Umetukah is Hebrew for \"A Good and Sweet Year.\" Ketiva ve-chatima tovah is a longer greeting on Rosh Hashanah. The Hebrew translates as \"May You Be Written and Sealed for a Good Year.\" Buchenwald concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager or \'KZ\' Buchenwald) was a Nazi concentration camp established on the Ettersberg (Etter Mountain) near Weimar, Thuringia, Germany (at the time, Germany), in July 1937, and one of the largest and first camps on German soil. Camp prisoners worked primarily as forced labour in local armament factories. Inmates were Jews, Poles, political prisoners, Roma and Sinti, Jehovah\'s Witnesses, religious prisoners, criminals, homosexuals, and prisoners of war (POWs).Up to 1942 the majority of the political prisoners consisted of communists and Anarchists; later the proportion of other political prisoners increased considerably. Among the prisoners were also writers, doctors, artists, former nobility, and princesses. They came from countries as varied as Russia, Poland, France, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Latvia, Italy, Romania and Spain (some Second Spanish Republic exiles). Most of the political prisoners from the occupied countries were members of the resistance. From 1945 to 1950, the camp was used by the Soviet occupation authorities as the NKVD special camp number 2. History In 1937, the Nazis constructed Buchenwald concentration camp, near Weimar, Germany. Placed over the camp\'s main entrance gate, was the slogan Jedem das Seine (literally \"to each his own\", but figuratively \"everyone gets what he deserves\"). The Nazis used Buchenwald until the camp\'s liberation in 1945. From 1945 to 1950, the Soviet Union used the occupied camp as an NKVD special camp for Nazis and other Germans. On 6 January 1950, the Soviets handed over Buchenwald to the East German Ministry of Internal Affairs. Buchenwald (German for beech forest) was chosen as the name for the camp because of the close ties of the location to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who was being idealized as “the embodiment of the German Spirit” (Verkörperung des deutschen Geistes). The Goethe Eiche (Goethe\'s Oak) stood inside the camp\'s perimeter,and the stump of the tree is preserved as part of the memorial at KZ Buchenwald.Between April 1938 and April 1945, some 238,380 people were incarcerated in Buchenwald by the Nazi regime, including 350 Western Allied POWs. One estimate places the number of deaths in Buchenwald at 56,000 (discussed further below). During an American bombing raid on August 24, 1944 that was directed at a nearby armament factory, several bombs, including incendiaries, also fell on the camp, resulting in heavy casualties amongst the prisoners. Death toll at Buchenwald Causes of death Although Buchenwald technically was not an extermination camp, it was a site of an extraordinary number of deaths. A primary cause of the deaths was illness due to harsh camp conditions, with starvation - and its consequent illnesses - prevalent. Malnourished and suffering from disease, many were literally \"worked to death\" under the Vernichtung durch Arbeit policy (extermination through labor), as inmates had only the choice between slave labour or inevitable execution. Many inmates died as a result of human experimentations or fell victim to arbitrary acts perpetrated by the SS guards. Other prisoners were simply murdered—the two primary methods of execution were shooting and hanging. Summary executions of Soviet POWs were also carried out at Buchenwald. At least 1,000 Soviet POWs were selected in 1941–2 by a task force of three Dresden Gestapo officers and sent to the camp for immediate liquidation by a gunshot to the back of the neck, the infamous Genickschuss. The camp was also a site of large-scale trials for vaccines against epidemic typhus in 1942 and 1943. In all 729 inmates were used as test subjects, with 280 of them dying as a result. Because of their long association in cramped quarters in Block 46, the typhus vaccine killed more people, with infections that lasted longer than would have been the case had healthy adults been infected with the disease.Number of deaths Main article: Number of deaths in Buchenwald The SS left behind accounts of the number of prisoners and people coming to and leaving the camp, categorizing those leaving them by release, transfer, or death. These accounts are one of the sources of estimates for the number of deaths in Buchenwald. According to SS documents, 33,462 died in Buchenwald. These documents were not, however, necessarily accurate: Among those executed before 1944 many were listed as \"transferred to the Gestapo\". Furthermore, from 1941 forward Soviet POWs were executed in mass killings. Arriving prisoners selected for execution were not entered into the camp register and therefore were not among the 33,462 dead listed in SS documents.One former Buchenwald prisoner, Armin Walter, calculated the number of executions by shooting in the back of the head. His job at Buchenwald was to set up and care for a radio installation at the facility where people were executed and counted the numbers, which arrived by telex, and hid the information. He says that 8,483 Soviet prisoners of war were shot in this manner.According to the same source, the total number of deaths at Buchenwald is estimated at 56,545.[7] This number is the sum of: Deaths according to material left behind by SS: 33,462n Executions by shooting: 8,483 Executions by hanging (estimate): 1,100 Deaths during evacuation transports: 13,500[9] This total (56,545) corresponds to a death rate of 24 percent assuming that the number of persons passing through the camp according to documents left by the SS, 238,380 prisoners, is accurate.Liberation On April 4, 1945, the U.S. 89th Infantry Division overran Ohrdruf, a subcamp of the Buchenwald. It was the first Nazi camp liberated by U.S. troops.Buchenwald was partially evacuated by the Germans on April 8, 1945. In the days before the arrival of the American army, thousands of the prisoners were forced to join the evacuation marches Thanks to efforts of Polish engineer Gwidon Damazyn (inmate from March 1941) had a secret radio transmitter and a small generator he had built. On April 9 at 1pm Damazyn sent the radio message prepared by leaders of prisoners\' underground (Walter Bartel and Harry Kuhn): The text was repeated four times, each time in English, German and Russian After 15 minutes the headquarters of the US Third Army answered and promised help as quickly as they could send it. After this news had been received, Communist inmates stormed the watchtowers and killed the remaining guards using arms they had been collecting since 1942 (one machine gun and 91 rifles).A detachment of troops belonging to the US 9th Armored Infantry Battalion, U.S. 6th Armored Division, US Third Army arrived at Buchenwald on April 11, 1945 under the leadership of Captain Frederic Keffer. The soldiers were given a hero\'s welcome, with the emaciated survivors finding the strength to toss some liberators into the air in celebration.Later in the day, elements of the U.S. 83rd Infantry Division overran Langenstein, one of a number of smaller camps comprising the Buchenwald complex. There the division liberated over 21,000 prisoners, ordered the mayor of Langenstein to send food and water to the camp, and sped medical supplies forward from the 20th Field Hospital.Third Army Headquarters sent elements of the U.S. 80th Infantry Division to take control of the camp on the morning of Thursday, April 12, 1945. Several journalists arrived on the same day, perhaps with the 80th, including Edward R Murrow, whose radio report of his arrival and reception was broadcast on CBS and became one of his most famous: Soviet Special Camp 2 Further information: NKVD special camps After liberation, between 1945 and 10 February 1950, the camp was administered by the Soviet Union and served as a Special Camp No. 2 of the NKVD. It was part of a \"special camps\" network operating since 1945, formally integrated into the Gulag in 1948. Another infamous \"special camp\" in Soviet occupied Germany was the former Nazi concentration camp Sachsenhausen (special camp No. 7).Between August 1945 and the dissolution on 1 March 1950, 28,455 prisoners, including 1,000 women, were held by the Soviet Union at Buchenwald. A total of 7,113 people died in Special Camp Number 2, according to the Soviet records. They were buried in mass graves in the woods surrounding the camp. Their relatives did not receive any notification of their deaths. Prisoners comprised alleged opponents of Stalinism, and alleged members of the Nazi party or Nazi organization, others were imprisoned due to identity confusion and arbitrary arrests. The NKVD would not allow any contacts of prisoners to the outside world and did not attempt to determine the guilt of any individual prisoner.On 6 January 1950, Soviet Minister of Internal Affairs Kruglov ordered all special camps, including Buchenwald, to be handed over to the East German Ministry of Internal Affairs.Demolition of the camp In October 1950, it was decreed that the camp would be demolished. The main gate, the crematorium, the hospital block, and two guard towers escaped demolition. All prisoner barracks and other buildings were razed. Foundations of some still exist and many others have been rebuilt. According to the Buchenwald Memorial website, \"the combination of obliteration and preservation was dictated by a specific concept for interpreting the history of Buchenwald Concentration Camp.\" The first monument to victims was erected days after the initial liberation. Intended to be completely temporary, it was built by prisoners and was made of wood. A second monument to commemorate the dead was erected in 1958 by the GDR near the mass graves. Inside the camp, there is a living monument in the place of the first monument that is kept at skin temperature year round.People Camp commandants SS-Sturmbannführer - Jacob Weiseborn - 1937 SS-Obersturmbannführer - Karl Otto Koch - 1937-1942 SS-Standartenführer - Hermann Pister - 1942-1945 Buchenwald’s second commandant was Karl Otto Koch, who ran the camp from 1937 to 1941. His second wife, Ilse Koch, became notorious as Die Hexe von Buchenwald (\"the witch of Buchenwald\") for her cruelty and brutality. Koch had a zoo built by the prisoners in the camp for the amusement of his children, with a bear pit (Bärenzwinger) facing the Appellplatz, the dreaded assembly square where prisoners were forced to stand motionless and silent for many hours (twice each day) while the meticulous \"roll-calls\" were conducted. Koch was eventually himself imprisoned at Buchenwald by the Nazi authorities for corruption, embezzlement, black market dealings, and his exploitation of camp workers for personal gain. He was tried and executed by the Nazis at Buchenwald in April 1945, while Ilse was sentenced to four years after the war. Her sentence was reduced to two years and she was set free. Later, she was arrested again and sentenced to life imprisonment by the post-war German authorities; she committed suicide in a Bavarian prison cell in September 1967. The second and last commandant of the camp was Hermann Pister (1942-1945). He was tried in 1947 (Dachau Trials), sentenced to death and hanged in 1948. Female prisoners and overseers The number of women held in Buchenwald was somewhere between 500 and 1,000. The first female inmates were twenty political prisoners who were accompanied by a female SS guard (Aufseherin); these women were brought to Buchenwald from Ravensbrück to serve in the camp’s brothel in 1941. Later the SS fired the SS woman on duty in the brothel for corruption, and her position was taken over by “brothel mothers” as ordered by SS chief Heinrich Himmler. The majority of women prisoners, however, arrived in 1944 and 1945 from other camps, mainly Auschwitz, Ravensbrück, and Bergen Belsen. Most of these women were Jewish, and only one barrack was set aside for them; this was overseen by the female Blockführerin, Franziska Hoengesberg, who came from Essen when it was evacuated. All the women prisoners were later shipped out to one of Buchenwald\'s many female satellite camps in Sömmerda, Buttelstedt, Mühlhausen, Gotha, Gelsenkirchen, Essen, Lippstadt, Weimar, Magdeburg, and Penig, to name a few. No female guards were permanently stationed at Buchenwald. When the Buchenwald camp was evacuated, the SS sent the male prisoners to other camps, and the five-hundred remaining women (including one of the secret annexe members who lived with Anne Frank, \"Mrs. van Daan\", real name Auguste van Pels) were taken by train and on foot to the Theresienstadt concentration camp and ghetto in Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Many, including van Pels, died sometime between April 1945 and May 1945. Because the female prisoner population at Buchenwald was comparatively small, the SS only trained female overseers at the camp and \"assigned\" them to one of the female subcamps. Twenty-two known female guards have personnel files at the camp, but it is unlikely that any of them stayed at Buchenwald for longer than a few days. Ilse Koch served as head supervisor (Oberaufseherin) of 22 other female guards and hundreds of women prisoners in the main camp. Eventually, more than 530 women served as guards in the vast Buchenwald system of subcamps and external commands across Germany. Only 22 women served/trained in Buchenwald, compared to over 15,500 men. Allied airmen Although it was highly unusual for German authorities to send Western Allied prisoners of war (POWs) to concentration camps, Buchenwald held a group of 168 aviators for about six months.[25] These POWs were from the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. They all arrived at Buchenwald on April 20, 1944[26] (according to one source, on August 20, 1944).All these airmen were in planes which had crashed in occupied France. Two explanations are given for them being sent to a concentration camp: first, that they had managed to make contact with the French Resistance, some were disguised as civilians, and they were carrying false papers when caught; they were therefore categorized by the Germans as spies, which meant their rights under the Geneva Convention were not respected. The second explanation is that they had been categorised as Terrorflieger (\"terror aviators\"). The aviators were initially held in Gestapo prisons and headquarters in France. In April or August 1944, they and other Gestapo prisoners were packed into covered goods wagons (US: boxcars) and sent to Buchenwald. The journey took five days, during which they received very little food or water. One aviator recalled their arrival at Buchenwald: They were subjected to the same treatment and abuse as other Buchenwald prisoners until October 1944, when a change in policy saw the aviators dispatched to Stalag Luft III, a regular prisoner-of-war camp (POW) camp; nevertheless, two airmen died at Buchenwald.Those classed as terrorflieger had been scheduled for execution after October 24; their rescue was effected by Luftwaffe officers who visited Buchenwald and, on their return to Berlin, demanded the airmen\'s release.Buchenwald was also the main imprisonment for a number of Norwegian university students from 1943 until the end of the war. The students, being Norwegian, got better treatment than most, but had to resist Nazi schooling for months. They became remembered for resisting forced labor in a minefield, as the Nazis wished to use them as cannon fodder. An incident connected to this is remembered as the Strike at Burkheim. The Norwegian students in Buchenwald lived in a warmer, stone-construction house and had their own clothes.Specific people associated with Buchenwald Well-known Nazi personnel Commandants Karl Otto Koch from 1937 to 1941 Hermann Pister from 1942 to 1945 Medical doctors Gerhard Rose Waldemar Hoven Hans Conrad Julius Reiter Nazi head of personnel Hermann Hackmann . ******* Aliyah (Hebrew: עלייה Translit.: Aliya Translated: \"ascent\") is the immigration of Jews to Eretz Israel. It is a basic tenet of Zionist ideology, and a value in almost all movements of Judaism. The opposite action, Jewish emigration from Israel, is referred to as Yerida (\"descent\"). Religious, ideological and cultural concept Aliyah is widely regarded as an important Jewish cultural concept and a fundamental concept of Zionism that is enshrined in Israel\'s Law of Return, which accords any Jew (deemed as such by halakha and/or Israeli secular law) and eligible non-Jews (a child and a grandchild of a Jew, the spouse of a Jew, the spouse of a child of a Jew and the spouse of a grandchild of a Jew), the legal right to assisted immigration and settlement in Israel, as well as automatic Israeli citizenship. Someone who \"makes aliyah\" is called an oleh (m. singular) or olah (f. singular); the plural for both is olim. Many Religious Jews espouse aliyah as a return to the Promised land, and regard it as the fulfillment of God\'s biblical promise to the descendants of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Aliyah is included as a commandment by some opinions on the enumeration of the 613 commandments.In Zionist discourse, the term aliyah (plural aliyot) includes both voluntary immigration for ideological, emotional, or practical reasons and, on the other hand, mass flight of persecuted populations of Jews. The vast majority of Israeli Jews today trace their family\'s recent roots to outside of the country. While many have actively chosen to settle in Israel rather than some other country, many had little or no choice about leaving their previous home countries. While Israel is commonly recognized as \"a country of immigrants\", it is also, in large measure, a country of refugees. According to the traditional Jewish ordering of books of the Bible, the very last word of the Bible (i.e. the last word in the original Hebrew of verse 2 Chronicles 36:23) is veya‘al, a jussive verb form derived from the same root as aliyah, meaning \"let him go up\" (to Israel).Historical background Mass return to the Land of Israel is a recurring theme in Jewish prayers recited every day, three times a day, and holiday services on Passover and Yom Kippur traditionally conclude with the words \"Next year in Jerusalem.\" since Jews are members of both a nation and a religion, aliyah (returning to Israel) has always had both a secular and a religious significance. In all historical periods during which return to the Land of Israel was possible, Jewish groups and individuals have immigrated back to the Jewish homeland. For generations of religious Jews, aliyah was associated with the coming of the Jewish Messiah. Jews prayed for their Messiah to come, who was to redeem the Land of Israel from gentile rule and return world Jewry to the land under a Halachic theocracy.Pre-Zionist aliyah Aliyah Bet: Illegal immigration (1933–1948) Main article: Aliyah B The British government limited Jewish immigration to Palestine with quotas, and following the rise of Nazism to power in Germany, illegal immigration to Palestine commenced. The illegal immigration was known as Aliyah Bet (\"secondary immigration\"), or Ha\'apalah, and was organized by the Mossad Le\'aliyah Bet, as well as by the Irgun. Immigration was done mainly by sea, and to a lesser extent overland through Iraq and Syria. Beginning in 1939 Jewish immigration was further restricted, limiting it to 75,000 individuals for a period of five years after which immigration was to end completely. The British made it illegal to sell land to Jews in 95% of the Mandate. During World War II and the years that followed until independence, Aliyah Bet became the main form of Jewish immigration to Palestine. Following the war, Berihah (\"flight\"), an organization of former partisans and ghetto fighters was primarily responsible for smuggling Jews from Poland and Eastern Europe to the Italian ports from which they traveled to Palestine. Despite British efforts to curb the illegal immigration, during the 14 years of its operation, 110,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine. In 1945 reports of the Holocaust with its 6 million Jewish dead, caused many Jews in Palestine to turn openly against the British Mandate, and illegal immigration escalated rapidly as many Holocaust survivors joined the Aliyah. Early statehood (1948–1950) After Aliyah Bet, the process of numbering or naming individual aliyot ceased, but immigration did not. A major wave of immigration of over half a million Jews went to Israel between 1948 and 1950, many fleeing renewed persecution in Eastern Europe, and increasingly hostile Arab countries. This period of immigration is often termed kibbutz galuyot (literally, ingathering of exiles), due to the large number of Jewish diaspora communities that made aliyah. However, kibbutz galuyot can also refer to aliyah in general. ****** Aliyah Bet (Hebrew: \'עלייה ב), meaning \"Aliyah \'B\'\" (bet being the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet) was the code name given to illegal immigration by Jews to the Palestine in violation of British restrictions, in the years 1934-1948. In modern day Israel it has also been called by the Hebrew term Ha\'apala (Hebrew: ההעפלה‎). It was distinguished from Aliyah Aleph (\"Aliyah \'A\'\") (Aleph is the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet): the limited Jewish immigration permitted by British authorities in the same period. Organization During Ha\'apala, several Jewish organizations worked together to facilitate immigration beyond the established quotas. As persecution of Jews intensified in Europe during the Nazi era, the urgency driving the immigration also became more acute. Those who participated in the immigration efforts consistently refused to term it \"illegal\", instead calling it \"clandestine.\" Ha\'apala occurred in two phases. First, from 1934 to 1942, it was an effort to enable European Jews to escape Nazi persecution and murder. Then, from 1945 to 1948, it was an effort to find homes for Jewish survivors of the Nazi crimes (Sh\'erit ha-Pletah) who were among the millions of displaced persons (\"DPs\") languishing in refugee camps in occupied Germany. During the first phase, several organizations (including Revisionists) led the effort; after World War II, the Mossad Le\'aliyah Bet (\"the Institute for Aliyah B\"), an arm of the Haganah, took charge. Routes Post-World War II, Ha\'apala journeys typically started in the DP camps and moved through one of two collection points in the American occupation sector, Bad Reichenhall and Leipheim. From there, the refugees travelled in disguised trucks, on foot, or by train to ports on the Mediterranean Sea, where ships brought them to Palestine. More than 70,000 Jews arrived in Palestine using more than 100 ships.American sector camps imposed no restrictions on the movements out of the camps, and American, French, and Italian officials often turned a blind eye to the movements. Several UNRRA officials (in particular Elizabeth Robertson in Leipheim) acted as facilitators of the emigration. The British government vehemently opposed the movement, and restricted movement in and out of their camps. Britain also set up armed naval patrols to prevent immigrants from landing in Palestine. History Over 100,000 people attempted to illegally enter Palestine. There were 142 voyages by 120 ships. Over half were stopped by the British patrols. Most of the intercepted immigrants were sent to internment camps in Cyprus: (Karaolos near Famagusta, Nicosia, Dhekelia, and Xylotumbou). Some were sent to the Atlit detention camp in Palestine, and some to Mauritius. The British held as many as 50,000 people in these camps (see Jews in British camps on Cyprus). Over 1,600 drowned at sea. Only a few thousand actually entered Palestine. The pivotal event in the Ha\'apala program was the incident of the SS Exodus in 1947. The Exodus was intercepted, attacked, and boarded by the British patrol. Despite significant resistance from its passengers, Exodus was forcibly returned to Europe. Its passengers were eventually sent back to Germany. This was publicized, to the great embarrassment of the British government. A particularly \"brilliant\" account of Aliyah Bet is given by journalist I. F. Stone in his 1946 book Underground to Palestine, an first-person account of traveling with European displaced persons attempting ot reach the Jewish homeland. Voyages The Tiger Hill, a 1,499 ton ship, built in 1887, sailed from Constanta on August 3, 1939, with about 750 immigrants on board. She took on board the passengers from the Frossoula, another illegal immigrant ship that was marooned in Lebanon. On September 1, the first day of World War II, the Tiger Hill was intercepted and fired on by British gunboats off Tel Aviv, and was beached. Hans Schneider, a Jewish refugee on the Tiger Hill, was killed. He may have been the first fatal casualty of World War II. Disasters On October 3, 1939, a large group of immigrants sailed from Vienna on the river boat Uranus, down the Danube. At the Romanian border, the Uranus was stopped and the immigrants were forced to disembark at the old fortress town of Kladovo in Yugoslavia. About 1,100 refugees were stranded there. In May, 1941, they were still in Yugoslavia, where 915 of them were caught and eventually killed by the invading Nazis. On May 18, 1940, the old Italian paddle steamer Pencho sailed from Bratislava, with 514 passengers, mostly Betar members. The Pencho sailed down the Danube to the Black Sea and into the Aegean Sea. On October 9, her engines stopped working, and she was wrecked off Mytilene, in the Italian-ruled Dodecanese Islands. The Italians rescued the passengers and took them to Rhodes. All but two were then placed in an internment camp at Ferramonti di Tarsia in southern Italy. They were held there until Allied forces liberated the area in September 1943. The story of the Pencho was published as Odyssey, by John Bierman. In October 1940, a large group of refugees was allowed to leave Vienna. The exodus was organized by Berthold Storfer, a Jewish businessman who worked under Adolph Eichmann. They took four river boats, Uranus, Schönbrunn, Helios, and Melk, down the Danube to Romania, where the Uranus passengers, approximately 1,000, boarded the Pacific, and sailed on October 11, 1940. They arrived at Haifa on November 1, followed by the Milos. The British transferred all the immigrants to the French liner Patria, intending to take them for internment to Mauritius. To stop the Patria from sailing, the Haganah smuggled a bomb on board. The explosion blew a hole in the side of the ship, which capsized, killing 267 persons. The British, by order of Winston Churchill, allowed the survivors to remain in Palestine. In December 1940 the Salvador, a small Bulgarian schooner formerly named Tsar Krum, left Burgas with 327 refugees. On December 12 the Salvador was wrecked in a violent storm in the Sea of Marmora, near Istanbul. 223 persons, including 66 children, lost their lives. The survivors were taken to Istanbul. 125 survivors were deported back to Bulgaria, and the remaining 70 left on the Darien (No. 66). On December 11, 1941 the Struma sailed from Constanta, flying the Panamanian Flag. The Struma was torpedoed and sunk by the Soviet submarine SC-213 on February 24, 1942. 770 lives were lost. There was one survivor. On September 20, 1942 the Europa sailed from Romania, with twenty-one passengers. The boat was wrecked in the Bosporus. On August 5, 1944, the Mefkura (or Mefkure) sailed from Constanta with 350 persons on board. The ship travelled with the Morino and Bulbul. During the night the Mefkura was sunk by gunfire/torpedo from by the Soviet submarine SC-215. Of the 350 persons being transported, only five survived. They were picked up by the Bulbul. Conclusion The success of Aliyah Bet was modest when measured in terms of the numbers who succeeded in entering Palestine. But it proved to be a unifying force both for the Jewish community in Palestine (the Yishuv) and for the Holocaust-survivor refugees in Europe (Sh\'erit ha-Pletah).