1960 Israel HEBREW 8\" TIN GLOBE Excellent POLITICAL Jewish JUDAICA Map ATLAS
![1960 Israel HEBREW 8\](img-large/g/YE0AAOSwTZ1XnHmH/s-l1600/1960-Israel-HEBREW-8-TIN-GLOBE-Excellent-POLITICAL.jpg "1960 Israel HEBREW 8\")
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1960 Israel HEBREW 8\" TIN GLOBE Excellent POLITICAL Jewish JUDAICA Map ATLAS:
$225.00
DESCRIPTION : Up for sale isan EXCELLENT VINTAGE extremely handsome 8\" ( Diameter 20 cm ) ISRAELI LITHO TIN HEBREW WORLD GLOBE. Manufactured by \"STEYMATZKY - TEL AVIV - ISRAEL\" . Edited by Israeli Moshe Braver. ENTIRELY HEBREW & ISRAELI . Published and manufactured in the 1960\'s. Definitely pre 1967.Beautiful large SILVERED BASE. The litho is SMOOTH, GLOSSY, COLORFUL and VIVID .VERY RARE in its condition . Size ; The globe diameter is 8\" . Height is around 12.5\". Very good condition. The LITHO TIN has retained it\'s almost perfect smoth face and vivid colors. A few imperfections , Small shallow dents but no rust .( Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) .Will be sent in a special protective rigid sealedpackage .PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal .
SHIPPING : Shipp worldwide via registeredairmail is $ 19 .Globe will be sent in a special protective rigid sealedpackage . Handling within 3-5 days after payment. Estimated Int\'l duration around 14 days. officially theState of Israel(Hebrew:מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵלMedīnat Yisrā\'el[mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel](listen); Arabic:دولة إِسْرَائِيلDawlat Isrāʼīl[dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is asovereign stateinWestern Asia. The country is situated in theMiddle Eastat the southEastern shore of theMediterranean Seaand the northern shore of theGulf of Aqabain theRed Sea. It shares land borders withLebanonto the north,Syriain the northeast,Jordanon the east, thePalestinian territories(which are claimed by theState of Palestineand are partially controlled by Israel) comprising theWest BankandGaza Strip[8]to the east and west, respectively, andEgyptto the southwest. It contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small centerisTel Aviv[11]whileJerusalemis both the self-designated capital andmost populous individual cityunder the country\'s governmental administration. Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem isinternationally unrecognized.[note 1][12][13]On 29 November 1947, theUnited Nations General Assemblyrecommended the adoption and implementation of thePartition PlanforMandatory Palestine. This UN plan specified borders for new Arab and Jewish states and also specified an area ofJerusalem and its environswhich was to be administered by the UN under an international regime.[14][15]The end of theBritish Mandate for Palestinewas set for midnight on 14 May 1948. That day,David Ben-Gurion, the executive head of theZionist Organizationand president of theJewish Agency for Palestine,declared\"the establishment of aJewish stateinEretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel,\" which would start to function from the termination of the mandate.[16][17][18]The borders of the new state were not specified in the declaration.[15][19]Neighboring Arab armiesinvadedthe former Palestinian mandate on the next day and fought the Israeli forces.[20][21]Israel has since foughtseveral warswith neighboring Arab states,[22]in the course of which it hasoccupiedthe West Bank,Sinai Peninsula(1956–57, 1967–82), part ofSouthern Lebanon(1982–2000), Gaza Strip (1967–2005; still considered occupied after2005 disengagement) and theGolan Heights. It extended its laws to the Golan Heights andEast Jerusalem, but not the West Bank.[23][24][25][26]Effortsto resolve theIsraeli–Palestinian conflicthave not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and bothEgyptandJordanhave successfully been signed. Israel\'s occupation of Gaza, the West Bank and East Jerusalem is the world\'slongest military occupationin modern times.[note 2][28]Thepopulation of Israel, as defined by theIsrael Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2016 to be 8,476,600people. It is the world\'s onlyJewish-majority state, with 6,345,400 citizens, or 74.9%, being designated asJewish. The country\'s second largest group of citizens are denoted asArabs, numbering 1,760,400 people (including the Druze and most East Jerusalem Arabs).[1][2]The great majority of Israeli Arabs aresettledSunniMuslims, with smaller but significant numbers of semi-settledNegev Bedouins; the rest areChristiansandDruze. Other far smaller minorities includeMaronites,Samaritans,Dom peopleandRoma,Black Hebrew Israelites, otherSub-Saharan boat people, and others. Israel also hosts a significant population of non-citizen foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia.[30]In itsBasic Laws, Israel defines itself as aJewish and democratic state.[31]Israel is arepresentative democracy[32]with a parliamentary system,proportional representationanduniversal suffrage.[33][34]Theprime ministerserves as head of government and theKnessetserves as thelegislature. Israel is adeveloped countryand anOECDmember,[35]with the35th-largesteconomyin the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2015. The country benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with the one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.[36][37]The country has thehighest standard of living in the Middle Eastand thefourth highest in Asia,[38][39][40]and hasone of the highest life expectanciesin the world.[41]Contents[hide]1 Etymology2 History2.1 Antiquity2.2 Classical period2.3 Middle Ages and modern history2.4 Zionism and British mandate2.5 After World War II2.5.1 UN partition resolution2.5.2 Declaration of Independence and 1948 war2.6 First years of independence2.7 Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War2.8 Further conflict and peace process3 Geography and Environment3.1 Tectonics and seismicity3.2 Climate4 Demographics4.1 Language4.2 Religion4.3 Education5 Politics5.1 Legal system5.2 Religious status5.3 Administrative divisions5.4 Israeli-occupied territories5.5 Foreign relations5.6 International humanitarian efforts5.7 Military6 Economy6.1 Science and technology6.2 Transport6.3 Tourism6.4 Energy7 Culture7.1 Literature7.2 Music and dance7.3 Cinema and theatre7.4 Media7.5 Museums7.6 Cuisine7.7 Sports8 See also9 Notes10 References11 Bibliography12 External linksEtymologyTheMerneptah Stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority ofbiblical archeologiststranslate a set of hieroglyphs as \"Israel,\" representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.Upon independence in 1948, the country formally adopted the name \"State of Israel\" (Medinat Yisrael) after other proposed historical and religious names includingEretz Israel(\"theLand of Israel\"),Zion, andJudea, were considered and rejected.[42]In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term \"Israeli\" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made byMinister of Foreign AffairsMoshe Sharett.[43]The namesLand of IsraelandChildren of Israelhave historically been used to refer to the biblicalKingdom of Israeland the entire Jewish people respectively.[44]Thename \'El(God) persists/rules\' though, after Hosea 12:4 often interpreted as \"struggle with God\"[45][46][47][48]) in these phrases refers to the patriarchJacobwho, according to theHebrew Bible, was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.[49]Jacob\'s twelve sons became the ancestors of theIsraelites, also known as theTwelve Tribes of IsraelorChildren of Israel. Jacob and his sons had lived inCanaanbut were forced by famine to go into Egypt for four generations, lasting 430 years,[50]untilMoses, a great-great grandson of Jacob,[51]led the Israelites back into Canaan during the \"Exodus\". The earliest known archaeological artifact to mention the word \"Israel\" is theMerneptah Steleofancient Egypt(dated to the late 13th century BCE).[52]The area is also known as theHoly Land, being holy for allAbrahamic religionsincluding Judaism, Christianity, Islam and theBahá\'í Faith. From 1920, the whole region was known asPalestine (under British Mandate)[note 3]until theIsraeli Declaration of Independenceof 1948.[53]Through the centuries, the territory was known by a variety of other names, including Judea,Samaria,Southern Syria,Syria Palaestina,Kingdom of Jerusalem,Iudaea Province,Coele-Syria,Djahy, andCanaan.HistoryMain article:History of IsraelAntiquityMain article:History of ancient Israel and JudahFurther information:Israelites,Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy),Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)andKingdom of JudahMap of the Kingdom of Israel, 1020 BCE–930 BCE as imagined from the Bible narrative[citation needed]City of David, archaeological site of ancient JerusalemThe notion of the \"Land of Israel\", known inHebrewasEretz Yisrael, has been important and sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to theTorah, Godpromised the landto the threePatriarchsof the Jewish people.[54][55]On the basis of scripture, the period of the three Patriarchs has been placed somewhere in the early 2nd millenniumBCE,[56]and the firstKingdom of Israelwas established around the 11th century BCE. SubsequentIsraelite kingdoms and statesruled intermittently over the next four hundred years, and are known from various extra-biblical sources.[57][58][59][60]The first record of the name Israel (asysrỉꜣr) occurs in theMerneptah stele, erected for Egyptian PharaohMerneptahc. 1209 BCE, \"Israel is laid waste and his seed is not.\"[61]This \"Israel\" was a cultural and probably political entity of the central highlands, well enough established to be perceived by the Egyptians as a possible challenge to theirhegemony, but an ethnic group rather than an organised state;[62]Ancestors of the Israelites may have includedSemitesnative toCanaanand theSea Peoples.[63]McNutt says, \"It is probably safe to assume that sometime duringIron Agea population began to identify itself as \'Israelite\'\", differentiating itself from theCanaanitesthrough such markers as the prohibition of intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.[64]Villages had populations of up to 300 or 400,[65][66]which lived by farming and herding, and were largely self-sufficient;[67]economic interchange was prevalent.[68]Writing was known and available for recording, even in small sites.[69]The archaeological evidence indicates a society of village-like centres, but with more limited resources and a small population.[70]Modern scholars see Israel arising peacefully and internally from existing people in the highlands of Canaan.[71]Around 930 BCE, the kingdom split into a southernKingdom of Judahand a northernKingdom of Israel. From the middle of the 8th century BCE Israel came into increasing conflict with the expandingneo-Assyrian empire. UnderTiglath-Pileser IIIit first split Israel\'s territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria (722 BCE). An Israelite revolt (724–722 BCE) was crushed after the siege and capture ofSamariaby the Assyrian kingSargon II. Sargon\'s son,Sennacherib, tried and failed toconquerJudah.Assyrian recordssay he leveled 46 walled cities and besieged Jerusalem, leaving after receiving extensive tribute.[72]In 586 BCE KingNebuchadnezzar IIofBabylonconqueredJudah. According to the Hebrew Bible, he destroyedSolomon\'s Templeandexiledthe Jews to Babylon. The defeat was also recorded by the Babylonians[73][74](see theBabylonian Chronicles). In 538 BCE,Cyrus the GreatofPersiaconquered Babylon and took over its empire. Cyrus issued a proclamation granting subjugated nations (including the people of Judah) religious freedom (for the original text, which corroborates the biblical narrative only in very broad terms, see theCyrus Cylinder). According to the Hebrew Bible 50,000 Judeans, led byZerubabel, returned to Judah andrebuilt the temple. A second group of 5,000, led byEzraandNehemiah, returned to Judah in 456 BCE although non-Jews wrote to Cyrus to try to prevent their return.Classical periodMain article:Second Temple periodFurther information:Hasmonean dynasty,Herodian dynastyandJewish–Roman warsPortion of theTemple Scroll, one of theDead Sea Scrollswritten during the Second Temple periodWith successivePersian rule, the region, divided between Syria-Coele province and later the autonomousYehud Medinata, was gradually developing back into urban society, largely dominated by Judeans. TheGreekconquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest. Incorporated into Ptolemaic and finally Seleucid Empires, the southern Levant was heavilyhellenized, building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks. The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with theMaccabean Revolt, which succeeded in establishing an independentHasmonean Kingdomin Judah, which later expanded over much of modern Israel, as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region.Masadafortress, location of thefinal battlein theFirst Jewish–Roman WarTheRoman Empireinvaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control ofSyria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean civil war. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea eventually led to the installation ofHerod the Greatand consolidation of theHerodian Kingdomas a vassal Judean state of Rome.With the decline of Herodians, Judea, transformed into a Roman province, became the site of a violent struggle ofJewsagainst Greco-Romans, culminating in theJewish-Roman Wars, ending in wide-scale destruction, expulsions, and genocide. Jewish presence in the region significantly dwindled after the failure of theBar Kokhba revoltagainst theRoman Empirein 132 CE.[75]Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence andGalileebecame its religious center.[76][77]TheMishnahand part of theTalmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem.[78]The region came to be populated predominantly by Greco-Romans on the coast and Samaritans in the hill-country. Christianity was gradually evolving over Roman paganism, when the area stood under Byzantine rule. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, the dramatic events of the repeatedSamaritan revoltsreshaped the land, with massive destruction to Byzantine Christian and Samaritan societies and a resulting decrease of the population. After thePersian conquestand the installation of a short-livedJewish Commonwealthin 614 CE, theByzantine Empirereconquered the country in 628.Middle Ages and modern historyFurther information:History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages,Muslim history in Palestine region,History of the Jews and the CrusadesandOld YishuvKfar Bar\'am, an ancient Jewish village, abandoned some time between the 7th–13th centuries AD.[79]In 634–641 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, wasconqueredby theArabswho had just recently adoptedIslam. It remained under Muslim control for the next 1300 years under various dynasties.[80]Control of the region transferred between Seljuks,Crusaders, and Ayyuoffers throughout the next six centuries,[80]before the area was conquered in 1260 by theMamluk Sultanate.[81]The 15th-centuryAbuhav synagogue, established by Sephardic Jews in Safed.[82]During thesiege of Jerusalemby theFirst Crusadein 1099, the Jewish inhabitants of the city fought side by side with the Fatimid garrison and the Muslim population who tried in vain to defend the city against theCrusaders. When the city fell, about 60,000 people were massacred, including 6,000 Jews seeking refuge in a synagogue.[83]At this time, a full thousand years after the fall of the Jewish state, there were Jewish communities all over the country. Fifty of them are known and include andGaza.[84]According toAlbert of Aachen, the Jewish residents of Haifa were the main fighting force of the city, and \"mixed with Saracen [Fatimid] troops\", they fought bravely for close to a month until forced into retreat by the Crusader fleet and land army.[85][86]However,Joshua Prawerexpressed doubt over the story, noting that Albert did not attend the Crusades and that such a prominent role for the Jews is not mentioned by any other source.[87][undue weight?–discuss]In 1165Maimonidesvisited Jerusalem and prayed on the Temple Mount, in the \"great, holy house\".[88]In 1141 Spanish-Jewish poet,Yehuda Halevi, issued a call to the Jews to emigrate to the Land of Israel, a journey he undertook himself. In 1187 SultanSaladin, founder of theAyyuoffer dynasty, defeated the Crusaders in theBattle of Hattinand subsequently captured Jerusalem and almost all of Palestine. In time, Saladin issued a proclamation inviting Jews to return and settle in Jerusalem,[89]and according toJudah al-Harizi, they did: \"From the day the Arabs took Jerusalem, the Israelites inhabited it.\"[90]Al-Harizi compared Saladin\'s decree allowing Jews to re-establish themselves in Jerusalem to the one issued by the Persian kingCyrus the Greatover 1,600 years earlier.[91]In 1211, the Jewish community in the country was strengthened by the arrival of a group headed by over 300 rabbis from France and England,[92]among them RabbiSamson ben Abraham of Sens.[93]Nachmanides, the 13th-century Spanish rabbi and recognised leader of Jewry greatly praised the land of Israel and viewed its settlement as a positive commandment incumbent on all Jews. He wrote \"If the gentiles wish to make peace, we shall make peace and leave them on clear terms; but as for the land, we shall not leave it in their hands, nor in the hands of any nation, not in any generation.\"[94]In 1260, control passed to theMamluk sultans of Egypt. The country was located between the two centres of Mamluk power, Cairo and Damascus, and only saw some development along the postal road connecting the two cities. Jerusalem, although left without the protection of anycity wallssince 1219, also saw a flurry of new construction projects centred around theAl-Aqsa Mosquecompound (theTemple Mount). In 1266 the Mamluk SultanBaybarsconverted theCave of the PatriarchsinHebroninto an exclusive Islamic sanctuary and banned Christians and Jews from entering, which previously would be able to enter it for a fee. The ban remained in place until Israel took control of the building in 1967.[95][96]Jews at theWestern Wall, 1870sIn 1470, Isaac b. Meir Latif arrived fromAnconaand counted 150 Jewish families in Jerusalem.[97]Thanks toJoseph Saragossiwho had arrived in the closing years of the 15th century, Safed and its environs had developed into the largest concentration of Jews in Palestine. With the help of the Sephardicimmigrationfrom Spain, the Jewish population had increased to 10,000 by the early 16th century.[98]In 1516, the region was conquered by theOttoman Empire; it remained underTurkish ruleuntil the end of theFirst World War, when Britain defeated the Ottoman forces and set up a military administration across the former Ottoman Syria. In 1920 the territory was divided between Britain andFranceunder themandate system, and the British-administered area which included modern day Israel was namedMandatory Palestine.[81][99][100]Zionism and British mandateFurther information:Zionism,Aliyah,Mandatory PalestineandBalfour DeclarationTheodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish StateSince the existence of the earliestJewish diaspora, many Jews have aspired to return to \"Zion\" and the \"Land of Israel\",[101]though the amount of effort that should be spent towards such an aim was a matter of dispute.[102][103]The hopes and yearnings of Jews living in exile are an important theme of the Jewish belief system.[102]After the Jews wereexpelled from Spainin 1492, some communities settled in Palestine.[104]During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in theFour Holy Cities—Jerusalem,Tiberias,Hebron, andSafed—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.[105]In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern EuropeanopponentsofHasidism, known as thePerushim, settled in Palestine.[106][107][108]\"I believe that a wondrous generation of Jews will spring into existence. The Maccabeans will rise again. Let me repeat once more my opening words: The Jews who wish for a State will have it. We shall live at last as free men on our own soil, and die peacefully in our own homes. The world will be freed by our liberty, enriched by our wealth, magnified by our greatness. And whatever we attempt there to accomplish for our own welfare, will react powerfully and beneficially for the good of humanity.\"Theodore Herzl, concluding words ofThe Jewish State, 1896[109]The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman-ruled Palestine, known as theFirst Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fledpogromsin Eastern Europe.[110]Although the Zionist movement already existed in Herzlis credited with founding politicalZionism,[111]a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, thus offering a solution to the so-calledJewish Questionof the European states, in conformity with the goals and achievements of other national projects of the time.[112]In 1896, Herzl publishedDer Judenstaat(The State of the Jews), offering his vision of a future Jewish state; the following year he presided over the firstZionist Congress.[113]TheSecond Aliyah(1904–14), began after theKishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half of them left eventually.[110]Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainlyOrthodox Jews,[114]although the Second Aliyah includedsocialistgroups who established thekibbutzmovement.[115]During World War I,British Foreign SecretaryArthur Balfoursent theBalfour Declaration of 1917toBaron Rothschild(Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild), a leader of the British Jewish community, that stated that Britain intended for the creation of a Jewish \"national home\" within the Palestinian Mandate.[116][117]TheJewish Legion, a group primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted, in 1918, in the British conquest of Palestine.[118]Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the1920 Palestine riotsand the formation of a Jewish militia known as theHaganah(meaning \"The Defense\" in Hebrew), from which theIrgunandLehi, orStern Gang, paramilitary groups later split off.[119]In 1922, theLeague of Nationsgranted Britain amandate over Palestineunder terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews, and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians.[120]The population of the area at this time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%,[121]and Arab Christians at about 9.5% of the population.[122]TheThird(1919–23) andFourth Aliyahs(1924–29) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[110]Finally, therise of Nazismand the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to theFifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of theArab revolt of 1936–39during which the British Mandate authorities alongside the Zionist militias ofHaganahandIrgunkilled 5,032 Arabs and wounded 14,760,[123][124]resulting in over ten percent of the adult malePalestinian Arabpopulation killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled.[125]The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with theWhite Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeingthe Holocaust, a clandestine movement known asAliyah Betwas organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[110]By the end ofWorld War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33% of the total population.[126]On July 22, 1946,Irgunattackedthe British administrative headquarters for Palestine, which was housed in the southern wing[127]of theKing David HotelinJerusalem.[128][129][130]91 people of various nationalities were killed and 46 were injured.[131]The hotel was the site of the central offices of theBritish Mandatoryauthorities of Palestine, principally the Secretariat of the Government of Palestine and the Headquarters of the British Armed Forces inPalestineandTransjordan.[131][132]The attack initially had the approval of theHaganah(the principal Jewish paramilitary group in Palestine). It was conceived as a response toOperation Agatha(a series of widespread raids, including one on theJewish Agency, conducted by the British authorities) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era (1920–1948).[131][132]After World War IIUN partition resolutionMain article:United Nations Partition Plan for PalestineUNMap, \"Palestine plan of partition with economic union\"After World War II, Britain found itself in intenseconflictwith theJewish communityover Jewish immigration limits, as well as continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. TheHaganahjoinedIrgunandLehiin an armed struggle against British rule.[133]At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe. The Yishuv attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine but many were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps inAtlitandCyprusby the British. Escalating violence culminated with the 1946King David Hotel bombingwhichBruce Hoffmancharacterized as one of the \"most lethal terrorist incidents of the twentieth century\".[134]In 1947, the British government announced it would withdraw fromMandatory Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.On 15 May 1947, theGeneral Assemblyof the newly formedUnited Nationsresolved that a committee,United Nations Special Committee on Palestine(UNSCOP), be created \"to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine\".[135]In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the UN General Assembly,[136]the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with \"an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem ... the last to be under an International Trusteeship System\".[137]On 29 November 1947, theGeneral Assemblyadopted aresolutionrecommending the adoption and implementation of thePlan of Partition with Economic Unionas Resolution 181 (II).[138]The Plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the Report of 3 September 1947.TheJewish Agency, which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan. TheArab LeagueandArab Higher Committeeof Palestine rejected it, and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.[139][140]Declaration of Independence and 1948 warFurther information:Israeli Declaration of IndependenceandArab–Israeli conflictOn the following day, 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and Arab gangs began attacking Jewish targets.[141]The Jews were initially on the defensive ascivil warbroke out, but in early April 1948 moved onto the offensive.[142][143]The Arab Palestinian economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled.[144]Wikisourcehas original text related to this article:the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of IsraelOn 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate,David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency,declared\"the establishment of a Jewish state inEretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel\".[145][146]The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the termEretz-Israel(\"Land of Israel\").[147]The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq—entered what had been British Mandatory Palestine, launching the1948 Arab–Israeli War;[148][149]Contingents from Yemen, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Sudan joined the war.[150][151]The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state at inception, and some Arab leaders talked about driving the Jews into the sea.[152][153][154]According toBenny Morris, Jews felt that the invading Arab armies aimed to slaughter the Jews.[155]The Arab league stated that the invasion was to restore law and order and to prevent further bloodshed.[156]After a year of fighting, aceasefire was declaredand temporary borders, known as theGreen Line, were established.[157]Jordan annexedwhat became known as theWest Bank, includingEast Jerusalem, andEgypt took controlof the Gaza Strip. The United Nations estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians wereexpelled by or fled from advancing Israeli forcesduring the conflict—what would become known in Arabic as (female Kibbutz members), during the1948 Arab-Israeli war. TheKibbutzim, or collective farming communities, played a pivotal role in establishing the new state.[159]Palestinian irregulars near a burnt armored Haganah supply truck, the road to Jerusalem, 1948A Butterfly improvised armored car brings supply to an isolated Negev kibutz. After the Egyptian invasion, those cars evacuated the childrenDavid Ben-Gurionannouncing the creation of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, below a portrait ofTheodor HerzlA briefing of Palmach soldiers from the Negev BrigadeRaising of theInk Flag, marking the end of the1948 Arab–Israeli WarFirst years of independenceIsrael was admitted as amember of the United Nationsby majority vote on 11 May 1949.[160]On 1949 both Israel and Jordan were genuinely interested in a peace agreement but the British acted as a brake on the Jordanian effort in order to avoid damaging British interests in Egypt.[161]In the early years of the state, theLabor Zionistmovement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[162][163]TheKibbutzim, or collective farming communities, played a pivotal role in establishing the new state.[159]Yemenite Jewsen route fromAdento Israel, during theOperation Magic Carpet(1949–1950)Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsoredMossad LeAliyah Bet(\"Institution for Illegal Immigration\"[164]). Both groups facilitated regular immigration logistics like arranging transportation, but the latter also engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit from those places was difficult.Mossad LeAliyah Betcontinued to take part in immigration efforts until its disbanding in 1953.[165]An influxofHolocaust survivorsandJews from Arab and Muslim landsimmigrated to Israel during the first 3 years and the number of Jews increased from 700,000 to 1,400,000,[166]many of whom faced persecution in their original countries.[167]The immigration was in accordance with theOne Million Plan.Consequently, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[166]Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.[168]The immigrants came to Israel for differing reasons. Some believed in a Zionist ideology, while others moved to escape persecution. There were others that did it for the promise of a better life in Israel and a small number that were expelled from their homelands, such as British and French Jews in Egypt after theSuez Crisis.[169]Some new immigrants arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known asma\'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities.[170]During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as theAusterity Period. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign areparations agreement with West Germanythat triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.[171]In 1950 Egypt closed the Suez Canal to Israeli shipping and tensions mounted as armed clashes took place along Israel\'s borders. During the 1950s, Israel was frequentlyattackedbyPalestinian fedayeen, nearly always against civilians,[172]mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,[173]leading to several Israelicounter-raids. In 1956, Great Britain and France aimed at regaining control of theSuez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see theSuez Crisis). The continued blockade of the Suez Canal andStraits of Tiranto Israeli shipping, together with the growing amount of Fedayeen attacks against Israel\'s southern population, and recent Arab grave and threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt.[174][175][176][177]Israel joineda secret alliancewith Great Britain and France and overran theSinai Peninsulabut was pressured to withdraw by the United Nations in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in theRed Seavia the Straits of Tiran and the Canal[citation needed].[178][179]The war resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration.[180][181][182][183]U.S. newsreel on the trial ofAdolf EichmannThe refugees were often treated differently according to where they had come from. Jews of European background were treated more favorably than Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries—housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, with the result that Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying intransit campsfor longer.[184]Tensions that developed between the two groups over such discrimination persist to the present day.[185]In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminalAdolf Eichmannin Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial.[186]The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust.[187]Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction by anIsraeli civilian court.[188]Six-Day War and Yom Kippur WarFurther information:Six-Day WarandYom Kippur WarTerritory held by Israel:before theSix-Day Warafter the warTheSinai PeninsulawasreturnedtoEgyptin 1982.Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of theJordan Riverinto the coastal plain,[189]had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provokingtensionsbetween Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other.Arab nationalistsled by Egyptian PresidentGamal Abdel Nasserrefused to recognize Israel, and called for its destruction.[22][190][191]By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.[192]In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelledUN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel\'s access to the Red Sea[citation needed]. Other Arab states mobilized their forces.[193]Israel reiterated that these actions were acasus belli. On 5 June 1967, Israel launched apre-emptive strikeagainst Egypt. Jordan, Syria and Iraq responded and attacked Israel. In aSix-Day War, Israel defeated Jordan and captured the West Bank, defeated Egypt and captured the Gaza Strip andSinai Peninsula, and defeated Syria and captured theGolan Heights.[194]Jerusalem\'s boundaries were enlarged, incorporatingEast Jerusalem, and the 1949Green Linebecame the administrative boundary between Israel and theoccupied territories.Following the 1967 war and the\"three nos\"resolution of the Arab League, during the 1967–1970War of AttritionIsrael faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, in Israel proper, and around the world. Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was thePalestinian Liberation Organization(PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to \"armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland\".[195][196]In the late 1960s and early 1970s,Palestinian groupslaunched awave of attacks[197][198]against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[199]includinga massacre of Israeli athletesat the1972 Summer Olympicsin Munich. The Israeli government responded with anassassination campaignagainst the organizers of the massacre, abombingand araid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.Operation Gazelle, Israel\'s ground maneuver, encircles the Egyptian Third Army, October 1973On 6 October 1973, as Jews were observingYom Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, that opened theYom Kippur War. The war ended on 26 October with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but having suffered over 2,500 soldiers killed in a war which collectively took 10–35,000 lives in just 20 days.[200]Aninternal inquiryexonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime MinisterGolda Meirto resign.[201]Further conflict and peace processFurther information:Israeli–Palestinian peace processIn July 1976 an airliner was hijacked during its flight to Tel Aviv by Palestinian guerrillas and landed atEntebbe, Uganda. Israeli commandos carried outan operationin which 102 out of 106 Israeli hostages were successfully rescued.The1977 Knesset electionsmarked a major turning point in Israeli political history asMenachem Begin\'sLikudparty took control from theLabor Party.[202]Later that year, Egyptian PresidentAnwar El Sadatmade a trip to Israel and spoke before theKnessetin what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[203]In the two years that followed, Sadat and Begin signed theCamp David Accords(1978) and theIsrael–Egypt Peace Treaty(1979).[204]In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula, which Israel had captured during the Six-Day War in 1967, and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[205]On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to theCoastal Road Massacre. Israel responded by launching aninvasion of southern Lebanonto destroy the PLO bases south of the Litani River. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a UN force and the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed itspolicy of attacksagainst Israel. In the next few years, the PLO infiltrated the south and kept up a sporadic shelling across the border. Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks by air and on the ground.Israel\'s 1980Jerusalem Lawdeclared Jerusalem to be Israel\'s \"eternal and indivisible capital\".Meanwhile, Begin\'s government provided incentives for Israelis tosettlein the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area.[206]TheBasic Law: Jerusalem, the Capital of Israel, passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel\'s 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, andreignited international controversyover thestatus of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.[207]The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to settle its citizens in the West Bank, and impose its laws and administration on East Jerusalem, are illegal and have no validity.[208]In 1981 IsraelannexedtheGolan Heights, although annexation was not recognized internationally.[209]On 7 June 1981, the Israeli air forcedestroyedIraq\'s solenuclear reactor, in order to impede Iraq\'s nuclear weapons program. The reactor was under construction just outside Baghdad. Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, IsraelinvadedLebanon that year to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel.[210]In the first six days of fighting, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry– theKahan Commission– would later hold Begin, Sharon and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for theSabra and Shatila massacre. In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus bybombingthe PLO headquarters in Tunis. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained aborderland buffer zonein southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forcesengaged in conflictwithHezbollah.Israel\'s ethnic diversity expanded in the 1980s and 1990s due to immigration. Several waves ofEthiopian Jewsimmigratedto Israel in the 1980s and 1990s, while between 1990 and 1994,Russian immigrationto Israel increased Israel\'s population by twelve percent.[211]TheFirst Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[212]broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. More than a thousand people were killed in the violence.[213]During the 1991Gulf War, the PLO supportedSaddam Husseinand Iraqi Scudmissile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded US calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war.[214][215]Yitzhak Rabin,Bill Clinton, andYasser Arafatduring theOslo I Accordsigning ceremony, 13 September 1993In 1992,Yitzhak Rabinbecame Prime Minister followingan electionin which his party called for compromise with Israel\'s neighbors.[216][217]The following year,Shimon Pereson behalf of Israel, andMahmoud Abbasfor the PLO, signed theOslo Accords, which gave thePalestinian National Authoritythe right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[218]The PLO alsorecognized Israel\'s right to existand pledged an end to terrorism.[219]In 1994, theIsrael–Jordan Treaty of Peacewas signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[220]Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israelisettlements[221]andcheckpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions.[222]Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck byPalestinian suicide attacks.[223]Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995,Yitzhak Rabin was assassinatedby a far-right-wing Jew who opposed the Accords.[224]At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership ofBenjamin Netanyahu, withdrew fromHebron,[225]and signed theWye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[226]Ehud Barak,elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium bywithdrawing forces from Southern Lebanonand conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority ChairmanYasser Arafatand U.S. President Bill Clinton at the2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of aPalestinian state. The proposed state included the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90% of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital,[227]although some argue that the plan was to annex areas which would lead to a cantonization of the West Bank into three blocs, which the Palestinian delegation likened to South African \"bantustans\", a loaded word that was disputed by the Israeli and American negotiators.[228]Each side blamed the other for thefailure of the talks.After the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit byLikudleaderAriel Sharonto theTemple Mount, theSecond Intifadabegan. Some commentators contend that the uprising was pre-planned by Yasser Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks.[229][230][231][232]Sharon became prime minister in a2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan tounilaterally withdrawfrom the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of theIsraeli West Bank barrier,[233]ending the Intifada.[234][235]By this time 1,100 Israelis had been killed, mostly in suicide bombings.[236]The Palestinian fatalities, by 30 April 2008, reached 4,745 killed by Israeli security forces, 44 killed by Israeli civilians, and 577 killed by Palestinians.[237]Iron Domemissile defense system intercepts Gaza rockets duringOperation Protective Edge, 2014In July 2006, aHezbollahartillery assault on Israel\'s northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-longSecond Lebanon War.[238][239]On 6 September 2007, the Israeli Air Forcedestroyeda nuclear reactor in Syria. In May 2008, Israel confirmed it had been discussing a peace treaty with Syria for a year, with Turkey as a go-between.[240]However, at the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire betweenHamasand Israel collapsed. TheGaza Warlasted three weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire.[241][242]Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. Despite neither therocket launchingsnor Israeli retaliatory strikes having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order.[243]In what Israel described as a response to more than a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities,[244]Israel began anoperationin Gaza on 14 November 2012, lasting eight days.[245]Israel started anotheroperationin Gaza following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas in July 2014.[246]Geography and EnvironmentMain articles:Geography of IsraelandWildlife of IsraelSatellite imagesof Israel and neighboring territories during the day (left) and night (right)Israel is at the Eastern end of theMediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes29°and34° N, and longitudes34°and36° E.The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the1949 Armistice Agreementsand excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967Six-Day War) is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019sqmi) in area, of which twopercent is water.[9]However Israel is so narrow that theexclusive economic zonein the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.[247]The total area under Israeli law, includingEast Jerusalemand theGolan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522sqmi),[248]and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partiallyPalestinian-governedterritory of theWest Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733sqmi).[249]Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from theNegevdesert in the south to the inland fertileJezreel Valley, mountain ranges of theGalilee,Carmeland toward theGolanin the north. TheIsraeli Coastal Plainon the shores of the Mediterranean is home to 57 percent of the nation\'s population.[250][251][252]East of the central highlands lies theJordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039mi)Great Rift Valley.TheJordan Riverruns along the Jordan Rift Valley, fromMount Hermonthrough theHulah Valleyand theSea of Galileeto theDead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[253]Further south is theArabah, ending with theGulf of Eilat, part of theRed Sea. Unique to Israel and theSinai Peninsulaaremakhteshim, or erosion cirques.[254]The largest makhtesh in the world isRamon Craterin the Negev,[255]which measures 40 by 8 kilometers (25 by 5mi).[256]A report on the Environmental status of the Mediterranean basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.[257]Tectonics and seismicityMain article:Geography of Israel § Seismic activityTheJordan Rift Valleyis the result of tectonic movements within theDead Sea Transform(DSF) fault system. The DSF forms thetransform boundarybetween theAfrican Plateto the west and theArabian Plateto the east. The Golan Heights and all of Jordan are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high seismic activity in the region. The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two majorearthquakesalong this structure in749and 1033. The deficit inslipthat has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake ofMw~7.4.[258]The most catastrophic earthquakes we know of occurred in 31 BCE, 363, 749, and 1033 CE, that is every ca. 400 years on average.[259]Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years.[260]While stringent construction regulations are currently in place and recently built structures are earthquake-safe, as of 2007the majority of the buildings in Israel were older than these regulations and many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were \"expected to collapse\" if exposed to a strong quake.[260]Given the fragile political situation of the Middle East region and the presence there of major holy sites, a quake reaching magnitude 7 on the Richter scale could have dire consequences for world peace.[259]ClimateIsrael map of Köppen climate classification.Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those ofTel AvivandHaifa, have a typicalMediterranean climatewith cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area ofBeershebaand the Northern Negev has asemi-arid climatewith hot summers, cool winters and fewer rainy days than the Mediterranean climate. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas havedesert climatewith very hot and dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (54.0°C or 129.2°F) was recorded in 1942 atTirat Zvikibbutz in the northern Jordan river valley.[261][262]At the other extreme mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and areas at elevation of 750 meters or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) will usually receive at least one snowfall each year.[263]From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[264][265]With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, includingdrip irrigation.[266]Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available forsolar energy, makingIsrael the leading nation in solar energyuse per capita (practically every house uses solar panels for water heating).[267]Four differentphytogeographicregions exist in Israel, due to the country\'s location between the temperate and the tropical zones, bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east. For this reason the flora and fauna of Israel is extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants found in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species areintroducedand non-native.[268]There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.[269]Tiberiasand theSea of GalileeField ofAnemone coronaria,national flower of IsraelRamon Crater, a unique type of crater that can be found only in Israel and the Sinai peninsulaSnow inGalileeFlowers of IsraelDemographicsMain articles:Demographics of Israel,IsraelisandList of cities in IsraelReligion in IsraelvteNote:Until 1995, figures for Christians also included Others.[270]In 2016, Israel\'s population was an estimated 8,476,600 millionpeople, of whom 6,345,400 (74.9%) were recorded by the civil government asJews. 1,760,400Arabscomprised 20.7% of the population, while non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed in the civil registry made up 4.4%.[1][2]Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[271]but estimates run in the region of 203,000.[30]By June 2012, approximately 60,000African migrantshad entered Israel.[272]About 92% of Israelis live in urban areas.[273]Retention of Israel\'s population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[274]Jewish emigration from Israel (calledyeridain Hebrew), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[275]but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel\'s future.[276][277]In 2009, over 300,000 Israeli citizens lived inWest Banksettlements[278]such asMa\'ale AdumimandAriel, including settlements that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after theSix-Day War, in cities such asHebronandGush Etzion. In 2011, there were 250,000 Jews living inEast Jerusalem.[279]20,000 Israelis live inGolan Heightssettlements.[209]The total number ofIsraeli settlersis over 500,000 (6.5% of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005disengagement plan.[280]Immigration to Israel in the years 1948–2008. The two peaks, of at least 200,000 each, were in 1949 and 1990.Israel was established as a homeland for theJewish peopleand is often referred to as aJewish state. The country\'sLaw of Returngrants all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry the right toIsraeli citizenship.[281]Over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from adiversity of Jewish backgrounds. Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as \"others\", areRussian descendantsof Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.[282][283][284]Approximately 75% ofIsraeli Jewsareborn in Israel, 17% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 8% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including theArab World).[285][286]Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their descendants born in Israel, includingAshkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 50% of Jewish Israelis.Jews who left or fled Arab and Muslim countriesand their descendants, including bothMizrahiandSephardiJews,[287]form most of the rest of the Jewish population.[288][289][290]Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent every year, with over 25% of school children now originating from both communities.[291]vteLargest cities in IsraelIsrael Central Bureau of Statistics[292]Rank Name District Pop. Rank Name District Pop. JerusalemTel Aviv 1 Jerusalem Jerusalem 849,800a 11 Ramat Gan Tel Aviv 150,900 HaifaRishon LeZion2 Tel Aviv Tel Aviv 426,100 12 Rehovot Central 128,9003 Haifa Haifa 277,100 13 Bat Yam Tel Aviv 128,5004 Rishon LeZion Central 240,700 14 Ashkelon Southern 126,8005 Petah Tikva Central 225,400 15 Beit Shemesh Jerusalem 98,1006 Ashdod Southern 218,000 16 Kfar Saba Central 94,2007 Netanya Central 202,400 17 Herzliya Tel Aviv 90,7008 Beersheba Southern 201,100 18 Modi\'in-Maccabim-Re\'ut Central 87,0009 Holon Tel Aviv 187,300 19 Hadera Haifa 86,80010 Bnei Brak Tel Aviv 178,300 20 Nazareth Northern 74,600^aThis number includesEast JerusalemandWest Bankareas. Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem isinternationally unrecognized.LanguageMain article:Languages of IsraelRoad sign inHebrew,Arabic, andEnglishIsrael has two official languages,HebrewandArabic.[9]Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken everyday by the majority of the population, and Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and Hebrew is taught in Arab schools.Englishwas an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the creation of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language,[293][294][295]as may be seen in road signs and official documents. Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in English withsubtitlesand the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. In addition, Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.[296]As a country ofimmigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union andEthiopia(some 130,000Ethiopian Jewslive in Israel),[297][298]RussianandAmharicare widely spoken.[299]More than one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel from the former Soviet Union states between 1990 and 2004.[300]Frenchis spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[301]mostly originating from France and North Africa (seeMaghrebi Jews).ReligionMain articles:Religion in IsraelandAbrahamic religionsTheDome of the Rockand theWestern Wall, Jerusalem.Israel comprises a major part of theHoly Land, a region of significant importance to allAbrahamic Faith.The religious affiliation ofIsraeli Jewsvaries widely: a social survey for those over the age of 20 indicates that 55% say they are \"traditional\", while 20% consider themselves \"secular Jews\", 17% define themselves as \"Religious Zionists\"; 8% define themselves as \"HarediJews\".[302]Haredi Jews are expected to represent more than 20% of Israel\'s Jewish population by 2028.[303]9thStation of the Crosson theVia Dolorosastreet in Jerusalem. TheChurch of the Holy Sepulchrein the background is venerated by Christians as the site of theBurial of Jesus.[304]Making up 16% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel\'s largest religious minority. About 2% of the population isChristianand 1.5% isDruze.[305]The Christian population primarily comprisesArab Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, the foreign laborers of multinational origins, and followers ofMessianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[306]Members of many other religious groups, includingBuddhistsandHindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[307]Out of more than one million immigrants from the formerSoviet Unionin Israel, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Orthodox rabbinate.[308]The city ofJerusalemis of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as theOld Citythat incorporates theWestern Walland theTemple Mount, theAl-Aqsa Mosqueand theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre.[309]Other locations of religious importance in Israel areNazareth(holy in Christianity as the site of of theFour Holy Citiesin Judaism), theWhite MosqueinRamla(holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophetSaleh), and theChurch of Saint GeorgeinLod(holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb ofSaint GeorgeorAl Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in theWest Bank, among themJoseph\'s TombinNablus, thebirthplace of JesusandRachel\'s TombinBethlehem, and theCave of the PatriarchsinHebron. The administrative center of theBahá\'í Faithand theShrine of the Bábare located at theBahá\'í World CentreinHaifa; the leader of the faith is buried inAcre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bahá\'í community in Israel, although it is a destination forpilgrimages. Bahá\'í staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy.[310][311][312]A few miles south of the Bahá\'í World Centre is the Middle East centre of the reformistAhmadiyyamovement. Its mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs is the only one of its kind in the country.[313][314]EducationMain article:Education in IsraelEducation in Israel is highly valued in the national culture with its historical values dating back to Ancient Israel and was viewed as one fundamental blocks of ancient Israelite life.[315]Israeli culture views higher education as the key to higher mobility and socioeconomic status in Israeli society.[316]The emphasis of education within Israeli society goes to the gulf within the Jewish diaspora from theRenaissanceandEnlightenmentMovement all the way to the roots of Zionism in the 1880s. Jewish communities in the Levant were the first to introduce compulsory education for which the organized community, not less than the parents, was responsible for the education of the next generation of Jews.[317]With contemporaryJewish culture\'s strong emphasis, promotion of scholarship and learning and the strong propensity to promote cultivation of intellectual pursuits as well as the nations high university educational attainment rate exemplifies how highly Israeli society values higher Israeli education system has been praised for various reasons, including its high quality and its major role in spurring Israel\'s economic development and technological boom.[324]Many international business leaders and organizations such as Microsoft founderBill Gateshave praised Israel for its high quality of education in helping spur Israel\'s economic development.[325][326]In 2012, the country ranked second among OECD countries (tied with Japan and after Canada) for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 46 percent compared with the OECD average of 32 percent. In addition, nearly twice as many Israelis aged 55–64 held a higher education degree compared to other OECD countries, with 47 percent holding an academic degree compared with the OECD average of 25%.[36][37]In 2012, the country ranked third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[327][328]Israel has a school life expectancy of 15.5 years[329]and a literacy rate of 97.1% according to the United Nations.[330]The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[331]Education iscompulsoryin Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[332][333]Schooling is divided into three tiers– primary school (grades 1–6),middle school(grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)– culminating withBagrutmatriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, theHebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, theEnglish language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[334]In Arab, Christian andDruzeschools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[335]Christian Arabsare one of the most educated groups in Israel.[336]Maarivhave describe theChristian Arabssectors as \"the most successful in education system\",[336]since Christian Arabs fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel.[337]Israeli children from Russian-speaking families have a higher bagrut pass rate at high-school level.[338]Although amongst immigrant children born in the FSU, the bagrut pass rate is highest amongst those families from Western FSU states of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova (at 62.6%), and lower amongst those from Central Asian and Caucasian FSU states.[339]In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[340]Hebrew University of JerusalemIsrael has nine public universities that are subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges.[334][341][342]TheHebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel\'s second-oldest university after theTechnion,[343][344]houses theNational Library of Israel, the world\'s largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.[345]TheTechnion, the Hebrew University, and theWeizmann Instituteconsistently ranked among world\'s 100 top universities by the prestigiousARWUacademic ranking.[346][347][348]The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University are ranked among the world\'s top 100 universities byTimes Higher Educationmagazine.[349]Other major universities in the country includeBar-Ilan University, theUniversity of Haifa,The Open University, andBen-Gurion University of the Negev.Ariel University, in theWest Bank, is the newest university institution, upgraded from college status, and the first in over thirty years. Israel\'s seven research universities (excluding the Open University) are consistently ranked among top 500 in the world.[350]PoliticsMain articles:Politics of IsraelandIsraeli system of governmentSee also:Criticism of the Israeli governmentTheKnessetchamber, home to the Israeli parliamentIsrael operates under aparliamentary systemas a democratic republic withuniversal suffrage.[9]A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes theprime minister—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is thehead of governmentand head of thecabinet.[351][352]Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as theKnesset. Membership of the Knesset is based onproportional representationofpolitical parties,[353]with a3.25% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments.Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or ano-confidence voteby the Knesset can dissolve a government earlier. TheBasic Laws of Israelfunction as anuncodified constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[9][354]Thepresident of Israelishead of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties.[351]Legal systemMain articles:Judicial system of IsraelandIsraeli lawSupreme Court of Israel, Givat Ram, JerusalemIsrael has athree-tier court system. At the lowest level aremagistratecourts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them aredistrict courts, serving as bothappellatecourts andcourts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel\'s sixdistricts. The third and highest tier is theSupreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and theHigh Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[355][356]Although Israel supports the goals of theInternational Criminal Court, it has not ratified theRome Statute, citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free from political impartiality.[357]Israel\'s legal system combines three legal traditions:Englishcommon law,civil law, andJewish law.[9]It is based on the principle ofstare decisis(precedent) and is anadversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[355]Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts:Jewish,Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[358]Administration of Israel\'s courts (both the \"General\" courts and the Labor Courts) is carried by the Administration of Courts, situated in Jerusalem. Both General and Labor courts are paperless courts: the storage of court files, as well as court decisions, are conducted electronically. Israel\'sBasic Law: Human Dignity and Libertyseeks to defendhuman rights and liberties in Israel.Religious statusMain article:Status quo (Israel)Israel has no official religion,[359][360][361]but the definition of the state as \"Jewish and democratic\" creates a strong connection with Judaism, as well as a conflict between state law and religious law. Interaction between the political parties keeps the balance between state and religion largely as it existed during the British Mandate.[362]Administrative divisionsMain article:Districts of IsraelDistricts of IsraelNorthernHaifaCentralTel Capital Largest city Population[363]Jews Arabs Total Jerusalem Jerusalem 67% 32% 1,034,200 aNorth Nazareth Illit Nazareth 43% 54% 1,358,600 Haifa Haifa 69% 25% 966,700 Center Ramla Rishon LeZion 88% 8% 2,024,500 Tel Aviv Tel Aviv 93% 1% 1,350,000 South Beersheba Ashdod 74% 20% 1,192,300 Judea and Samaria Ariel Modi\'in Illit 98% 0% 370,700 b^aIncluding approximately 200,000 Israeli settlers and 208,000 Palestinians.[364][365][366]^bIsraeli citizens only.The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known asmehozot(מחוזות; andTel Aviv Districts, as well as theJudea and Samaria Areain theWest Bank. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and North districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known asnafot(נפות; singular:nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[367]For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas:Tel Aviv metropolitan area(population 3,206,400),Haifa metropolitan area(population 1,021,000), andBeer Sheva metropolitan area(population 559,700).[368]Israel\'s largest municipality, in population and area,[369]isJerusalemwith 773,800 residents in an area of 126 square kilometres (49sqmi) (in 2009). Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area ofEast Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as part of thePalestinian territoriesunderIsraeli occupation.[370]Tel Aviv,Haifa, andRishon LeZionrank as Israel\'s next most populous cities, with populations of 393,900, 265,600, and 227,600 respectively.[369]Israeli-occupied territoriesMain article:Israeli-occupied territoriesMap of Israel showing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan HeightsIn 1967, as a result of theSix-Day War, Israel captured andoccupiedtheWest Bank, includingEast Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and theGolan Heights. Israel also captured theSinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979Israel–Egypt Peace Treaty.[371]Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part ofsouthern Lebanon, in what was known as theSecurity Zone.Since Israel\'s capture of these territories,Israeli settlementsand military installations have been built within each of them. Israel has applied civilian law to theGolan HeightsandEast Jerusalemand granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability to apply for citizenship. The West Bank, outside of the Israeli settlements within the territory, has remained under direct military rule, and Palestinians in this area cannot become Israeli citizens. Israel withdrew its military forces and dismantled the Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip as part of itsdisengagement from Gazathough it continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters. The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be \"null and void\" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[372][373]TheInternational Court of Justice, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, asserted, in its2004 advisory opinionon the legality of the construction of theIsraeli West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory.[374]The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians, as Israel views it as its sovereign territory, as well as part of its capital. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis ofUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasises \"the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war\", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as \"Land for peace\".[375][376][377]Israeli West Bank barrierseparating Israel and the West BankThe West Bank was annexed by Jordan in 1950, following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has sincecededits claim to the territory to thePLO. The West Bank was occupied by Israel in 1967 during the Six-Day War. The population are mainlyPalestinians, includingrefugeesof the1948 Arab-Israeli War.[378]From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were underIsraeli military administration. Since theIsrael–PLO letters of recognition, most of thePalestinian populationandcitieshave been under the internal jurisdiction of thePalestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed itstroopsand reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of theSecond Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.[379]When completed, approximately 13% of the Barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.[380][381]The Gaza Strip wasoccupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967and then by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part ofIsrael\'s unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its settlers and forces from the territory. Israel does not consider the Gaza Strip to be occupied territory and declared it a \"foreign territory\". That view has been disputed by numerous international humanitarian organizations and various bodies of the United June 2007, whenHamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip,[387]Israel tightened its control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting the area except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.[387]Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the European Union and thePAgoverned how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European observers).[388]Egypt adhered to this agreement under Mubarak and prevented access to Gaza until April 2011 when it announced it was opening its border with Gaza.Foreign relationsMain articles:Foreign relations of IsraelandInternational recognition of IsraelDiplomatic relationsDiplomatic relations suspendedFormer diplomatic relationsNo diplomatic relations, but former trade relationsNo diplomatic relationsIsrael maintains diplomatic relations with 158 countries and has 107diplomatic missionsaround the world;[389]countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries.[390]Only three members of theArab Leaguehave normalized relations with Israel: Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in1979and1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.[391]Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan, and Yemen are enemy countries,[392]and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from theMinistry of the Interior.[393]Iranhad diplomatic relations with Israel under thePahlavi dynasty[394]but withdrew its recognition of Israel during theIslamic Revolution.[395]As a result of the2008–09 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel.[396][397]TheUnited Statesand theSoviet Unionwere the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously.[398]The United States regards Israel as its \"most reliable partner in the Middle East,\"[399]based on \"common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests\".[400]Their bilateral relations are multidimensional and the United States is the principal proponent of theArab-Israeli peace process. The United States and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements.[401]The United States has provided $68billion in military assistance and $32billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under theForeign Assistance Act(period beginning 1962),[402]more than any other country for that period until 2003.[402][403][404]Germany\'sstrong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[405][406]Under the reparations agreement, by 2007Germany had paid 25billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.[407]The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. The UK is seen as having a \"natural\" relationship with Israel on account of theBritish Mandate for Palestine.[408]Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime ministerTony Blair\'s efforts for a two state resolution. Israel is included in the European Union\'sEuropean Neighbourhood Policy(ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.[409]Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[410]Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey\'s ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.[411]Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the2008–09 Gaza Warand Israel\'s raid of theGaza flotilla.[412]IHH, which organized the flotilla, is a Turkish charity that has been challenged on ties between Israel and Greece have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli-Turkish relations.[417]The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, theIsraeli Air Forcehosted Greece’sHellenic Air Forcein a joint exercise at theUvda base. Israel is the second largest importer of Greek products in the Middle East.[418]The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on theLeviathan gas fieldare an important factor for Greece, given its strong links withCyprus.[419]Cooperation in the world\'s longest sub-sea electric power cable, theEuroAsia Interconnector, has strengthened relations between Cyprus and Israel.[420][421][422]India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.[423]According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.[424][425]India is the largest customer of Israeli military equipment and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after the Russian Federation.[426]India is also the third-largest Asian economic partner of Israel[427]and the two countries havemilitaryas well as extensivespace technologyties.[428][429]India became the top source market for Israel from Asia in 2010 with 41,000 tourist arrivals in that year.[430]Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic relations with Israel. Azerbaijan supplies Israel with a substantial amount of its oil needs, and Israel has helped modernize the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan. In Africa, Ethiopia is Israel\'s main and closest ally in the continent due to common political, religious and security interests.[431]Israel provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects and thousands of Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) live in Israel.International humanitarian effortsIsraeli foreign aid ranks very low among OECD nations, spending less than 0.1% of its GNI on foreign aid, as opposed to the recommended 0.7%. Individual international charitable donations are also very low, with only 0.1% of charitable donations being sent to foreign causes.[432]However, Israel has a history of providing emergency aid and humanitarian response teams to disasters across the world.[433]Israel\'s humanitarian efforts officially began in 1958, with the establishment ofMASHAV, the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Agency for International Development Cooperation.[434]Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations ofIDF search and rescue unitto 22 countries.[435]In Haiti, immediately following the2010 earthquake, Israel was the first country to set up a field hospital capable of performing surgical operations.[436]Israel sent over 200 medical doctors and personnel to start treating injured Haitians at the scene.[437]At the conclusion of its humanitarian mission 11 days later,[438]the Israeli delegation had treated more than 1,110 patients, conducted 319 successful surgeries, delivered 16 births and rescued or assisted in the rescue of four individuals.[439][440]Despite radiation concerns, Israel was one of the first countries to send a medical delegation to Japan following the earthquake and tsunami disaster.[441]Israel dispatched a medical team to the tsunami-stricken city ofKuriharain 2011. A medical clinic run by an IDF team of some 50 members featured pediatric, surgical, maternity and gynecological, and otolaryngology wards, together with an optometry department, a laboratory, a pharmacy and an intensive care unit. After treating 200 patients in two weeks, the departing emergency team donated its equipment to the Japanese.[442]There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government, includingIsraAid, a joint programme run by 14 Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups,[443]The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team (FIRST),[444]Israeli Flying Aid (IFA),[445]Save a Child\'s Heart (SACH)[446]and LATET.[447]
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