OLD Bronze Tattoo Needle & Teak Case & Bamboo Buddhist Sutra Lord Ganesh Design

OLD Bronze Tattoo Needle & Teak Case & Bamboo Buddhist Sutra Lord Ganesh Design

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OLD Bronze Tattoo Needle & Teak Case & Bamboo Buddhist Sutra Lord Ganesh Design:
$250.00

Old Bronze Tattoo Needle

Teak Wood Case

Illustrated Bamboo Buddhist Sutra Book

Lord Ganesh Design

100% HANDMADE

THIS IS A REALLY OLD AND MAGNIFICENT HANDMADE OLD 3 SECTION BRONZE TATTOO NEEDLE WITH HAND CARVED TEAK CASE AND ILLUSTRATED BAMBOO BUDDHIST SUTRA BOOK THAT I PICKED UP DURING MY MOST RECENT VISIT TO THE GOLDEN TRIANGLE REGION.THE NEEDLE IS DECORATED WITH A RARE AND EXQUISITE LORD GANESH DESIGN. LORD GANESH, THE REMOVER OF OBSTACLES, ISWORSHIPEDAND ADORED BY HINDUS AND BUDDHIST ALIKE. I HAVE INCLUDED MORE INFO ABOUT LORD GANESH BELOW.THE BAMBOO BUDDHIST SUTRA BOOK INDICATES THAT THIS NEEDLE PROBABLY ONCE BELONGED TO A BUDDHIST MONK. BAMBOO SUTRA BOOKS LIKE THIS ARE PAINSTAKINGLY SCRATCHED OUT BY HAND BY MONKS. ALSO, SOME MONKS ARE FAMOUS TATTOO ARTISTS SOUGHT OUT FOR THEIR POWERFUL TATTOO DESIGNS.THIS IS NOT A REPRODUCTION... IT IS AN AUTHENTIC TATTOO NEEDLE THAT WAS PREVIOUSLY USED.DECORATIVE OLD BRONZE TATTOO NEEDLES COMPLETE WITH CASE ARE INCREASINGLY DIFFICULT TO FIND. THIS WILL MAKE AN EXCELLENT SHOW AND CONVERSATION PIECE IN ANY HOME OR OFFICE. DON\'T WAIT, BUY IT NOW!

ATTENTION: THIS PIECE IS INTENDED FOR DECORATIVE PURPOSES ONLY... NOT FOR ACTUAL USE.

DIMENSIONS: Case is approx 11 inches X 4 inches X 3.5 inch (CAN BE SEEN IN PHOTOS ABOVE). Needle is approx 16 inches long and had an extra large head section.

MATERIALS: Case is made of teak wood, Tattoo Needle is bronze.

AGE: 19TH CENTURY

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THANKS FOR YOUR TIME AND CONSIDERATION.... DOBUYDON

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GaneshaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\"Vinayaka\" and \"Vinayakudu\" redirect here. For other uses, seeVinayaka (disambiguation).\"Ganapati\" and \"Ganapathy\" redirect here. For other uses, seeGanapati (disambiguation).For other uses, seeGanesha (disambiguation)andGanesa (disambiguation).GaneshaGod of wisdom, knowledge and new beginningsBasohliminiature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Gaṇeśāya NamaḥWeaponParaśu(Axe),pāśa(Snare) ,aṅkuśa(Elephant style=\"margin: 0.5em 0px; line-height: also known asGanapatiandVinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in theHindu pantheon.[2]His image is found throughoutIndia.[3]Hindu sectsworship him regardless of affiliations.[4]Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extendsto Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.[5]

Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha\'selephanthead makes him easy to identify.[6]Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles,[7]the patron of arts and sciences and thedevaof intellect and wisdom.[8]As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.[9][10]Several texts relatemythological anecdotesassociated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.

Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during theGupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[11]He was formally included among the five primary deities ofSmartism(a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called theGanapatyaarose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity.[12]The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are theGanesha Purana, theMudgala Purana, and theGanapati Atharvashirsa.

Contents[hide]
  • 1Etymology and other names
  • 2Iconography
    • 2.1Common attributes
    • 2.2Vahanas
  • 3Associations
    • 3.1Obstacles
    • 3.2Buddhi (Knowledge)
    • 3.3Aum
    • 3.4First chakra
  • 4Family and consorts
  • 5Worship and festivals
    • 5.1Ganesh Chaturthi
    • 5.2Temples
  • 6Rise to prominence
    • 6.1First appearance
    • 6.2Possible influences
    • 6.3Vedic and epic literature
    • 6.4Puranic period
    • 7Beyond India and Hinduism
    • 8Notes
    • 9References
    • 10External links

    Etymology and other names[edit]Ganesha as \'Shri Mayureshwara\' with consorts Buddhi and Siddhi,Morgaon(the central shrine for the regionalAshtavinayakcomplex)[13]

    Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, includingGanapatiandVighneshvara. The Hindu title of also spelledSriorShree) is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting aGanesha Sahasranama, a litany of \"a thousand names of Ganesha\". Each name in thesahasranamaconveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from theGanesha Purana, aHindu scripturevenerating Ganesha.[14]

    The nameGaneshais a Sanskrit compound, joining the wordsgana(Sanskrit:गण; IAST:gaṇa), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system andisha(Sanskrit:ईश; IAST:īśa), meaning lord or master.[15]The wordgaņawhen associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue ofShiva(IAST:Śiva).[16]The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[17]Some commentators interpret the name \"Lord of theGaņas\" to mean \"Lord of Hosts\" or \"Lord of created categories\", such as the IAST:gaṇapati), a synonym forGanesha, is a compound composed ofgaṇa, meaning \"group\", andpati, meaning \"ruler\" or \"lord\".[17]TheAmarakosha,[19]an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms toVighnesha),Dvaimātura(one who has two mothers),[20]Gaṇādhipa(equivalent toGanapatiandGanesha),Ekadanta(one who has one tusk),Heramba,Lambodara(one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), andGajanana(IAST:gajānana); having the face of an elephant).[21]

    A prominent name for Ganesha in theTamil K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying thatpillaimeans a \"child\" whilepillaiyarmeans a \"noble child\". He adds that the wordspallu,pella, andpellin theDravidian family of languagessignify \"tooth or tusk\", also \"elephant tooth or tusk\".[27]Anita Raina Thapan notes that theroot wordpillein the namePillaiyarmight have originally meant \"the young of the elephant\", because thePaliwordpillakameans \"a young elephant\".[28]

    In theBurmese language, Ganesha is known asMaha pèiɴné]), derived fromPaliMahā widespread name of Ganesha inThailandisPhra PhikhanetorPhra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived fromVara VighneshaandVara Vighneshvararespectively, whereas the nameKhanet(fromGanesha) is rather rare.

    InSri Lanka, in the North-Central and North Western areas with predominantlyBuddhistpopulation, Ganesha is known asAiyanayakaDeviyo, while in other Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.

    Iconography[edit]A 13th-century statue of Ganesha,Mysore District,Karnataka

    Ganesha is a popular figure inIndian art.[30]Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[31]He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

    Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts ofIndiaby the 6th century.[32]The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha\'s common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[33]and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[34]Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[35]A more primitive statue in one of theEllora Caveswith this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[36]Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or agoadin one upper arm and apasha(noose) in the other upper arm.

    The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhayamudra).[37]The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[38]

    Common attributes[edit]For thirty-two popular iconographic forms of Ganesha, seeThirty-two forms of Ganesha.A typical four-armed form. Miniature ofNurpurschool (circa 1810)[39]

    Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[40]Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[41]One of his popular forms,Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[42]While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[43]The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created byParvatiusing clay to protect her andShivabeheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva andParvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha\'s original head with that of an elephant.[44]Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[45][46]Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva\'s laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[47]

    Ganesha\'s earliest name wasEkadanta(One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[48]Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[49]The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in theMudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha\'s secondincarnationis Ekadanta.[50]Ganesha\'s protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[51]This feature is so important that, according to theMudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it:Lambodara(Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) andMahodara(Great Belly).[52]Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST:udara).[53]TheBrahmanda Puranasays that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e.,cosmic eggs; IAST:brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[54]The number of Ganesha\'s arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[55]Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[56]His earliest images had two arms.[57]Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[58]The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[59]According to theGanesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpentVasukiaround his neck.[60]Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST:yajñyopavīta)[61]wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha\'s forehead may be athird eyeor theShaivitesectarian mark (IAST:tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[62]TheGanesha Puranaprescribes atilakamark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[63]A distinct form of Ganesha calledBhalachandra(IAST:bhālacandra; \"Moon on the Forehead\") includes that iconographic element.[64]Ganesha is often described as red in color.[65]Specific colors are associated with certain forms.[66]Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise onHindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations Who Releases from Bondage).[67]Ekadanta-Ganapatiis visualized as blue during meditation in that form.[68]

    Vahanas[edit]Ganesha\'s dancing and love of sweets are represented. The mouse is depicted under his feet.Museum of Asian Art.

    The earliest Ganesha images are without avahana(mount/vehicle).[69]Ofthe eight incarnations of Ganesha described in theMudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation asVakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation asVikata, andShesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation asVighnaraja.[70]Mohotkatauses a lion,Mayūreśvarauses a peacock,Dhumraketuuses a horse, andGajananauses a mouse, in thefour incarnations of Ganeshalisted in theGanesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[71]

    Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by amouse,shreworrat.[72]Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[73]The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in theMatsya Puranaand later in theBrahmananda PuranaandGanesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[74]TheGanapati Atharvashirsaincludes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his Flag.[75]The namesMūṣakavāhana(mouse-mount) andĀkhuketana(rat-banner) appear in theGanesha Sahasranama.[76]

    The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, \"Many, if not most of those who interpretGaṇapati\'s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizestamoguṇaas well as desire\".[77]Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[78]Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit wordmūṣaka(mouse) is derived from the rootmūṣ(stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type ofvighna(impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function asVigneshvara(Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folkgrāma-devatā(village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[79]Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret with consort, 18th century Nepal.Obstacles[edit]

    Ganesha the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[81]He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that \"his task in the divine scheme of things, hisdharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation.\"[82]

    Krishan notes that some of Ganesha\'s names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[25]Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of theGanapatyas, to this shift in emphasis fromvighnakartā(obstacle-creator) both functions continue to be vital to his character.[84]

    Buddhi (Knowledge)[edit]

    Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[85]In Sanskrit, the wordbuddhiis a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[86]The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha\'s names in theGanesha Puranaand theGanesha SahasranamaisBuddhipriya.[87]This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of theGanesha Sahasranamathat Ganesha says are especially important.[88]The wordpriyacan mean \"fond of\", and in a marital context it can mean \"lover\" or \"husband\",[89]so the name may mean either \"Fond of Intelligence\" or \"Buddhi\'s Husband\".[90]

    Aum[edit]

    Ganesha is identified with the HindumantraAum, also spelledOm. The termoṃkārasvarūpa(Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[91]TheGanapati Atharvashirsaattests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[92]

    (O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity)Brahma,Vishnu, andMahesa. You areIndra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You areBrahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], andSwargaloka[heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

    Ganesha (Devanagari) Aum jewel

    Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha\'s body in iconography and the shape of Aum in chakra[edit]

    According toKundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the firstchakra, calledMuladhara(mūlādhāra).Mulameans \"original, main\";adharameans \"base, foundation\". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[94]This association is also attested to in theGanapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: \"[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in thesacral plexusat the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].\"[95]Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[96]Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby \"governing the forces that propel thewheel of life\".[94]

    Family and consorts[edit]See also:Mythological anecdotes of GaneshaandConsorts of GaneshaShivaandParvatigiving a bath to Ganesha. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahbad Museum, New Delhi.[97]

    Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son ofShivaandParvati, thePuranicmyths give different versions about his birth.[98]In some he was created by Parvati,[99]in another he was created by ShivaandParvati,[100]in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati[101]or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati\'s bath water that had been thrown in the river.[102]

    The family includes his brother the war godKartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.[103]Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born.[104]Innorthern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[105]and may reflect sectarian tensions.[106]

    Ganesha\'s marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[107]One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarriedbrahmacari.[108]This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[109]Another pattern associates him with the concepts ofBuddhi(intellect),Siddhi(spiritual power), andRiddhi(prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha\'s wives.[110]He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit:daşi).[111]Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts,SarasvatiorŚarda(particularly inMaharashtra).[112]He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity,Lakshmi.[113]Another pattern, mainly prevalent in theBengalregion, links Ganesha with the banana tree,Kala Bo.[114]

    TheShiva Puranasays that Ganesha had begotten two sons:Kşema(prosperity) andLābha(profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to beŚubha(auspiciouness) andLābha.[115]The 1975Hindi filmJai Santoshi Maashows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter namedSantoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma\'s cult as evidence of Ganesha\'s continuing evolution as a popular deity.[116]

    Worship and festivals[edit]Celebrations of Ganesh by theTamilcommunity inParis,France

    Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[117]K.N. Somayaji says, \"there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country\".[118]Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[119]

    Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[120]Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as theBharatnatyamdance with a prayer to Ganesha.[65]Mantrassuch asOm ShriGaṇeshāyaNamah(Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha isOmGaṃGanapataye Namah(Om,Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[121]

    Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such asmodakaand small sweet balls (laddus).[122]He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called amodakapātra.[123]Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped withred sandalwoodpaste (raktacandana)[124]or red flowers.Dūrvāgrass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[125]

    Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in theśuklapakṣa(the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month ofBhadrapada(August/September) and theGanesh Jayanti(Ganesha\'s birthday) celebrated on thecathurthīof theśuklapakṣa(fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month Chaturthi[edit]Main article:Ganesh ChaturthiStreet festivities inHyderabad, Indiaduring the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi

    An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[127]The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha\'s visit. The festival culminates on the day ofAnanta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[128]Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893,Lokmanya Tilaktransformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[129]He did so \"to bridge the gap between theBrahminsand the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them\" in his nationalistic strivings against the British inMaharashtra.[130]Because of Ganesha\'s wide appeal as \"the god for Everyman\", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[131]Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha inpavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[132]Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[133][134]The festival also assumes huge proportions inMumbai,Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

    Temples[edit]Further information:List of Ganapati templesandAshtavinayakAshtavinayakand anOmin between

    In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon.[135]As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.[136]In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: lit. \"eight Ganesha (shrines)\") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city ofPune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend.[137]The eight shrines style=\"margin: 0.5em 0px; line-height: inherit;\">There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations:Waiin Maharashtra;UjjaininMadhya Pradesh;Jodhpur,Nagaurand Raipur (Pali) inRajasthan; Baidyanath inBihar;Baroda, Dholaka, andValsadinGujaratand Dhundiraj Temple inVaranasi,Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following:KanipakaminChittoor; theJambukeśvara TempleatTiruchirapalli; atRameshvaramandSuchindraminTamil Nadu; at andIdagunjiinKarnataka; andBhadrachalaminAndhra Pradesh.[138]

    T. A. Gopinatha notes, \"Every village however small has its own image ofVighneśvara(Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, belowpīpaḹa(Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples ofViṣṇu(Vishnu) as well asŚiva(Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed inŚivatemples [...]; the figure ofVighneśvarais invariably seen.\"[139]Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, includingsoutheast Asia,Nepal(including the fourVinayakashrines in theKathmandu valley),[140]and in several western countries.[141]

    Rise to prominence[edit]First appearance[edit]Ganesha,Karpaka Vinayakar Temple, 400 CE,[142]Tamil Nadu.

    Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries.[143]Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to theGupta period.[144]His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century.[143]Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:[145]

    What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa\'s Vedic origins and in thePurāṇicexplanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon ofthisdeity\" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

    Possible influences[edit]Ganesha worshipped in theDurga Pujacelebrations inCologne.

    Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[146]

    In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside theBrāhmaṇictradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come intoBrāhmaṇicreligion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in thePurāṇicliterature and the iconography ofGaņeśa.

    Thapan\'s book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, \"although by the second century CE the elephant-headedyakṣaform exists it cannot be presumed to representGaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage.Gaṇapati-Vināyakahad yet to make his debut.\"[147]

    In 1993, a metal plate depiction of an elephant-headed figure, interpreted as Ganesha, was discovered inLorestan Province, Iran, dating back to 1,200 BCE.[148][149]Firstterracottaimages of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique.[150]The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE).[150]

    One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the fourVinayakas(Vināyakas).[151]InHindu mythology, theVināyakaswere a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[152]but who were easily propitiated.[153]The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in thePurāṇasand in Buddhist Tantras.[22]Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, \"He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of theMānavagŗhyasūtra(7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering\".[154]Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear inIndian artandcoinageas early as the 2nd century.[155]According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people ofSri Lankain the early pre-Christian era.[156]

    Vedic and epic literature[edit]Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, his scribe, 17th century Rajasthani manuscript of the Mahabharata.

    The title \"Leader of the group\" (Sanskrit:gaṇapati) occurs twice in theRig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title forBrahmanaspati, according to commentators.[157]While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[158]In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in theRig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it \"clearly refers toBṛhaspati—who is the deity of the clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers toIndra,[160]who is given the epithet \'gaṇapati\', translated \"Lord of the companies (of theMaruts).\"[161]However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .[162]

    Two verses in texts belonging toBlack Yajurveda,Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā(2.9.1)[163]andTaittirīya Āraṇyaka(10.1),[164]appeal to a deity as \"the tusked one\" (Dantiḥ), \"elephant-faced\" (Hastimukha), and \"with a curved trunk\" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentatorSayanaexplicitly establishes this identification.[165]The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club,[166]is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says \"we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin\".[167]However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[168]Thapan reports that these passages are \"generally considered to have been interpolated\". Dhavalikar says, \"the references to the elephant-headed deity in theMaitrāyaṇī Saṃhitāhave been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity\".[169]

    Ganesha does not appear inIndian epicliterature that is dated to theVedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poemMahabharatasays that the sageVyasa(Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of theMahabharata,[170]in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[171]The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition.[172]Ganesha\'s association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe forVyāsa\'s dictation of theMahabharatain this interpolation.[173]Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, andMoriz Winternitzconcludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to theMahabharatasome 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature inSouth Indianmanuscripts of theMahabharatais their omission of this Ganesha legend.[174]The termvināyakais found in some recensions of theŚāntiparvaandAnuśāsanaparvathat are regarded as interpolations.[175]A reference toVighnakartṛīṇām(\"Creator of Obstacles\") inVanaparvais also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[176]

    Puranic period[edit]For more details on this topic, seeMythological anecdotes of Ganesha.Tanjore-style painting of Ganesha

    Stories about Ganesha often occur in thePuraniccorpus. Brown notes while the Puranas \"defy precise chronological ordering\", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha\'s life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[177]Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant\'s head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[178]

    In his survey of Ganesha\'s rise to prominence inSanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[179]

    Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surroundingGaṇeśaconcentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

    Ganesha\'s rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities ofSmartism. The 9th-century philosopherAdi Shankarapopularized the \"worship of the five forms\" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[180]This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha,Vishnu, Shiva,Devi, andSurya.[181]Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

    Scriptures[edit]Further information:Ganesha Purana,Mudgala PuranaandGanapati AtharvashirsaGanesha statue in 9th centuryPrambanantemple, Java, Indonesia

    Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities ofBrahmanism, someBrahmins(brāhmaṇas) chose to messed up Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed theGanapatyatradition, as seen in theGanesha Puranaand theMudgala Purana.[182]

    The date of composition for theGanesha Puranaand theMudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. \"It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries\", she says, \"but was later interpolated.\"[183]Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for theGanesha Puranato be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[184]

    R.C. Hazra suggests that theMudgala Puranais older than theGanesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[185]However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that theMudgala Puranawas the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, theMudgala Puranaspecifically mentions theGanesha Puranaas one of the four Puranas (theBrahma, theBrahmanda, theGanesha, and theMudgalaPuranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[186]While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[187]Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.[188]

    Beyond India and Hinduism[edit]For more details on this topic, seeGanesha in world religions.\"Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres\".[189]This form is also known as Maharakta (\"The Great Red One\").[190]

    Commercial and cultural contacts extended India\'s influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.[191]

    Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[192]From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[193]The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[194]

    Hindus migrated toMaritime Southeast Asiaand took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[195]Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art ofJava,Bali, andBorneoshow specific regional influences.[196]The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. InIndochina, Hinduism andBuddhismwere practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[197]In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of theChamsin Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[198]Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[198]

    The Japanese form of Ganesha -Kangiten, late 18th-early 19th-century painting by Shorokuan Ekicho

    Before the arrival ofIslam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[199]

    Ganesha appears inMahayanaBuddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist godVināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[200]His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[201]As the Buddhist godVināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, calledNṛttaGanapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[202]In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known asHeramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[203]Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[204]A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati istshogs bdag.[205]In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot byMahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.[206]Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.[207]Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. Innorthern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[208]In Japan, where Ganesha is known asKangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[209]

    The canonical literature ofJainismdoes not mention the worship of Ganesha.[210]However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions ofKubera.[211]Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.[212]The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[213]A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.[210]Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[214]

    History of tattooingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis articleneeds additional citations for verification.Please helpimprove this articlebyadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may bechallengedandremoved.(March 2012)Main article:TattooContents[hide]
    • 1Tattooing in prehistoric times
    • 2Tattooing in the ancient world
      • 2.1China
      • 2.2Egypt and India
      • 2.3Philippines
      • 2.4Indonesia
      • 2.5Europe
      • 2.6Japan
      • 2.7Samoa
      • 2.8New Zealand Māori
      • 2.9Persia
    • 3Reintroduction in the Western world
    • 4Modern Western Tattooing 1900s - Present (The Tattoo Renaissance)
    • 5Religious prohibitions
      • 5.1The Jewish Positions
      • 5.2Christian Positions
      • 5.3Muslim positions
    • 6References
    Tattooing in prehistoric times[edit]Supposed Neolithic Tattoo,discovered on modern day Romania, PreCucuteni Culture, clay figure 4900-4750 BC.A tattoo on the right arm of aScythianchieftain whose mummy was discovered atPazyryk,Russia. tattoo was made more than 2,500 years ago.

    Tattooing has been aEurasianpractice sinceNeolithictimes. \"Ötzi the Iceman\", dated c. 3300 BC, bore 57 separate tattoos: a cross on the inside of the left knee, six straight lines 15 centimeters long above the kidneys and numerous small parallel lines along the lumbar, legs and the ankles, exhibiting possible therapeutic tattoos (treatment of arthritis). Tarim Basin (West China, Xinjiang) revealedseveral tattooed mummiesof a Western (Western Asian/European) physical type. Still relatively unknown (the only current publications in Western languages are those of J P. Mallory and V H. Mair,The Tarim Mummies, London, 2000), some of them could date from the end of the 2nd millennium BC.

    One tattooed Mummy (c. 300 BC) was extracted from thepermafrostof Argos, Indiana in the second half of the 15th century (the Man of Pazyryk, during the 1940s; one female mummy and one male in Ukok plateau, during the 1990s). Their tattooing involved animal designs carried out in acurvilinearstyle. The Man ofPazyryk, aScythianchieftain, is tattooed with an extensive and detailed range of fish, monsters and a series of dots that lined up along the spinal column (lumbar region) and around the right ankle (illustrated at right).

    Tattooing in the ancient world[edit]China[edit]

    In ancientChina, tattoos had been associated with criminals and bandits since at least theZhou Dynasty(1045 BC to 256 BC). Tattooing Chinese characters such as \"Prisoner\" (囚) on convicted criminals\' or slaves\' faces was practiced until the last dynasty, theQing Dynasty(1644 to 1912).

    However, tattoos can be found to have been referenced in popular culture. Tattoos are present in one of the Four Great Classic Novels inChinese literature,Water Margin, in which at least three of the main characters,Lu Zhishen(鲁智深), Shi Jin (史進) and Yan Ching (燕青) are described as having tattoos covering nearly all of their bodies.Wu Song(武松) was sentenced to tattoo his face with his crime after having killed Xi Menqing (西门庆) to avenge his brother. In addition, Chinese legend has it that the mother ofYue Fei(岳飛), a famous general of theSong Dynasty, tattooed the words \"Jing Zhong Bao Gu\"o (精忠報國) on his back with her sewing needle before he left to join the army, reminding him to \"repay his country with pure loyalty\".

    Marco Polowrote ofQuanzhou\"Many come hither from Upper India to have their bodies painted with the needle in the way we have elsewhere described, there being many adepts at this craft in the city.\"

    Egypt and India[edit]Main articles:HennaandMehndi

    In northern India, permanent tattoos are called \"\"Godna.\"\" Tattoos have been used as cultural symbols among many tribal populations, as well as the caste-based Hindu population of India.HennaandMehndiwere popular inancient Indiaandancient Egypt, and still remain popular today in theIndian subcontinent,Middle EastandNorth Africa.

    Philippines[edit]1908 photo of a Filipino Bontoc warrior bearing a Head hunters \'Chaklag\' Tattoo

    Tattooing has been a part of Filipino life since pre-Hispanic colonization of thePhilippine Islands, tattooing in the Philippines to some were a form of rank and accomplishments, some believed that tattoos had magical qualities. The more famous tattooedindigenous peoples of the Philippineswhere among the area up NorthLuzon, especially among the BontocIgorot, Kalinga, and Ifugao peoples.

    Filipino tattooing was first documented by the European Spanish explorers as they landed among the Islands in the late 16th century. Before European exploration it was a widespread tradition among the islands. Tattooing was set among the native groups of the Philippines, which sometimes tattooing was a sign of Rank and power in certain communities.

    Indonesia[edit]Dayak tattooing in progress.

    Several Indonesian tribes have a tattoo culture. One notable example is theDayak peopleof Kalimantan in Borneo (Bornean traditional tattooing).

    Europe[edit]

    Ahmad ibn Fadlanalso wrote of his encounter with theScandinavianRus\'tribe in the early 10th century, describing them as tattooed from \"fingernails to neck\" with dark blue \"tree patterns\" and other \"figures.\"[1]During the gradual process of Christianization in Europe, tattoos were often considered remaining elements ofpaganismand generally legally prohibited.

    According toRobert Gravesin his bookThe Greek Mythstattooing was common amongst certain religious groups in the ancientMediterraneanworld, which may have contributed to the prohibition of tattooing inLeviticus. However, during the classic Greek period, tattooing was only common among slaves.

    Japan[edit]Main article:Irezumi

    Tattooing for spiritual and decorative purposes in Japan is thought to extend back to at least theJōmonorPaleolithicperiod (approximately 10,000 BCE) and was widespread during various periods for both the Japanese and the nativeAinu. Chinese visitors observed and remarked on the tattoos in Japan (300 BCE).

    Between 1603 and 1868 Japanese tattooing was only practiced by the \"ukiyo-e\" (The floating world culture). Generally firemen, manual workers and prostitutes wore tattoos to communicate their status. Between 1720 and 1870 criminals were tattooed as a visible mark of punishment; this actually replaced having ears and noses removed. A criminal would often receive a single ring on their arm for each crime committed which easily conveyed their criminality. This practice was eventually abolished by the \"Meji\" government who banned the art of tattooing altogether, viewing it as barbaric and lacking respectability. This subsequently created a subculture of criminals and outcasts, many of whom were the old Samurai warriors (\"Ronin\" - Master less). These people had no place in \"decent society\" and were frowned upon. They simply could not integrate into mainstream society because of their obvious visible tattoos, forcing many of them into criminal activities which ultimately formed the roots for the modern Japanese mafia, theYakuza, for which tattoos in Japan have almost become synonymous.

    Samoa[edit]

    The traditional male tattoo in Samoa is called thepe\'a. The traditional female tattoo is called themalu. The wordtattoois believed to have originated from the Samoan wordtatau.[citation needed]

    When theSamoan Islandswere first seen by Europeans in 1722 three Dutch ships commanded by Jacob Roggeveen visited the Eastern island known as Manua. A crew member of one of the ships described the natives in these words, “They are friendly in their speech and courteous in their behavior, with no apparent trace of wildness or savagery. They do not paint themselves, as do the natives of some other islands, but on the lower part of the body they wear artfully woven silk tights or knee breeches. They are altogether the most charming and polite natives we have seen in all of the South Seas...\"[citation needed]

    The ships lay at anchor off the islands for several days, but the crews did not venture ashore and didn’t even get close enough to the natives to realize that they were not wearing silk leggings, but their legs were completely covered intattoos.[citation needed]

    In Samoa, the tradition of applyingtattoo, or tatau, by hand has been unbroken for over two thousand years. Tools and techniques have changed little. The skill is often passed from father to son, eachtattooartist, or tufuga, learning the craft over many years of serving as his father\'s apprentice. A young artist-in-training often spent hours, and sometimes days, tapping designs into sand or tree bark using a specialtattooingcomb, or au. Honoring their tradition, Samoan tattoo artists made this tool from sharpened boar\'s teeth fastened together with a portion of the turtle shell and to a wooden handle.[citation needed]

    Traditional Samoan tattooing of the “pe\'a”, body tattoo, is an ordeal that is not lightly undergone. It takes many weeks to complete. The process is very painful and used to be a necessary prerequisite to receiving a matai title; this however is no longer the case.Tattooingwas also a very costly procedure.[citation needed]

    It was not uncommon for half a dozen boys to be tattooed at the same time, requiring the services of four or more artists. It was not just the men who received tattoos, but the women too; their designs are of a much lighter nature rather than having the large areas of solid dye which are frequently seen in men’s tattoos. The tattooing of women was not nearly as ritualized like men’s were.[citation needed]

    Samoan society has long been defined by rank and title, with chiefs (ali\'i) and their assistants, known as talking chiefs (tulafale). The tattooing ceremonies for young chiefs, typically conducted at the time of puberty, were part of their ascendance to a leadership role. The permanent marks left by thetattooartists would forever celebrate their endurance and dedication to cultural traditions. The pain was extreme and the risk of death by infection was a concern; to back down from tattooing was to risk being labeled a “pala\'ai” or coward. Those who could not endure the pain and abandoned their tattooing were left incomplete, would be forced to wear their mark of shame throughout their life. This would forever bring shame upon their family so it was avoided at all cost.[citation needed]

    The Samoan tattooing process used a number of tools which remained almost unchanged since their first use. “Autapulu” is a wide tattooing comb used to fill in the large dark areas of the tattoo. “Ausogi\'aso tele” is a comb used for making thick lines. “Ausogi\'aso laititi” is a comb used for making thin lines. “Aumogo” small comb is used for making small marks. “Sausau” is the mallet is used for striking the combs. It is almost two feet in length and made from the central rib of a coconut palm leaf. “Tuluma” is the pot used for holding the tattooing combs. Ipulama is the cup used for holding the dye. The dye is made from the soot collected from burnt lama nuts. “Tu\'I” used to grind up the dye. These tools were primarily made out of animal bones to ensure sharpness.[citation needed]

    The tattooing process itself would be 5 sessions, in theory. These 5 sessions would be spread out over 10 days in order for the inflammation to subside. The steps are as follows.[citation needed]

    1. O le Taga Tapulu (back and small of the back): In the first session the height to which the tattoo will rise is decided (Ano le Tua), this is always such that the top of the design will show above the lavalava. Then the va\'a, pula tama and pula tele are outlined and the design filled in.[citation needed]
    2. O le Taga Fai\'aso (the posterior): The aso fa\'aifo are completed around to theabdomenand the \'asolaititi are finished. Next to be added are the saemutu, which vary in number depending upon social status. A matai will have four an orator three and anyone else would have two. Where it meets the \'ivimutu at the anus it is called tafaufile, where it covers the perineum it is called tasele, where it covers the scrotum it is called tafumiti and the area over the penis is called tafito. Needless to say this is very painful.[citation needed]
    3. Taga Tapau: The lausae, an area of solid tattooing, is added to the thighs beneath the aso e lua.[citation needed]
    4. Taga o Fusi ma Ulumanu: The fourth session is the tattooing of the ulumanu, from the center of the thigh up to the inner groin.[citation needed]
    5. \'Umaga (the end): The final sessions involves the tattooing of the abdomen, the area that covers the navel being called the pute, and is apparently the most painful part of the whole process.[citation needed]

    Christian missionaries from the west attempted to purge tattooing among the Samoans, thinking it barbaric and inhumane. Many young Samoans resisted mission schools since they forbade them to wear tattoos. But over time attitudes relaxed toward this cultural tradition and tattooing began to reemerge in Samoan culture.[citation needed]

    New Zealand Māori[edit]Main article:Tā moko

    TheMāori peopleofNew Zealandpractised a form of tattooing known asTā moko. In the colonial period Tā moko fell out of use, partly because of the European practice of collectingMokomokai, or tattooed heads.

    Persia[edit]

    In Persian culture, tattooing, body painting, and body piercing has been around for thousands of years. The statues and stone carvings remained fromAchaemenid Empire(550–330 BCE) prove existence of body piercing and earrings on ancient Persian gods, kings, and even soldiers.[citation needed]The most famous literal document about Persian tattoo goes back to about 800 years ago whenRumi, the famous Persian poet, narrates a story about a man who proudly asks to get a lion tattoo but he changes his mind once he experiences the pain coming out of the tattoo needle.[citation needed]

    Reintroduction in the Western world[edit]This section requiresexpansionwith: proletarian, peasant and bourgeois tattooing.(July 2012)

    It was thought that many of the Anglo-Saxon kings of England were tattooed, but much of this was conjecture.

    SirMartin Frobisher(1535–1595) on May 31, 1577 set out on his second voyage fromHarwich, England with 3 ships and about 120 men to find a north west passage to China and the promise of gold ore. Frobisher took prisoner a nativeInuitman and a woman with a child, upon his return to England the woman having tattoos on her chin and forehead was a great attraction at the court ofElizabeth I. All three died within a month.

    In 1691William Dampierbrought to London a native of thewestern partofNew Guinea(now part ofIndonesia) who had a tattooed body and became known as the \"Painted Prince\".

    Between 1766 and 1779, CaptainJames Cookmade three voyages to the South Pacific, the last trip ending with Cook\'s death in Hawaii in February 1779. When Cook and his men returned home to Europe from their voyages toPolynesia, they told tales of the \'tattooed savages\' they had seen. The word \"tattoo\" itself comes from theTahitiantatau, and was introduced into theEnglish languageby Cook\'s expedition.

    Cook\'s Science Officer and Expedition Botanist, SirJoseph Banks, returned to England with a tattoo. Banks was a highly regarded member of the English aristocracy and had acquired his position with Cook by putting up what was at the time the princely sum of some ten thousand pounds in the expedition. In turn, Cook brought back with him a tattooedRaiateanman,Omai, whom he presented to King George and the English Court. Many of Cook\'s men, ordinary seamen and sailors, came back with tattoos, a tradition that would soon become associated with men of the sea in the public\'s mind and the press of the day. In the process sailors and seamen re-introduced the practice of tattooing in Europe and it spread rapidly to seaports around the globe.

    It was in Tahiti aboard the Endeavour, in July 1769, that Cook first noted his observations about the indigenous body modification and is the first recorded use of the word tattoo. In the Ship\'s Log Cook recorded this entry: \"Both sexes paint their Bodys, Tattow, as it is called in their Language. This is done by inlaying the Colour of Black under their skins, in such a manner as to be indelible.\"

    Cook went on to write, \"This method of Tattowing I shall now describe...As this is a painful operation, especially the Tattowing of their Buttocks, it is performed but once in their Lifetimes.\"

    The British Royal Court must have been fascinated with Omai\'s tattoos, because the future KingGeorge Vhad himself inked with the \'Cross of Jerusalem\' when he traveled to theMiddle Eastin 1892. During a visit toJapanhe also received a dragon on the forearm from the needles of Hori Chiyo, an acclaimed tattoo master. George\'s sons, the Dukes of Clarence and York were also tattooed in Japan while serving in the British Admiralty, solidifying what would become a family tradition.

    Taking their sartorial lead from the British Court, whereEdward VIIfollowedGeorge V\'s lead in getting tattooed; KingFrederick IXofDenmark, the King ofRomania,KaiserWilhelm II,King Alexander of Yugoslaviaand evenTsar Nicholas IIofRussia, all sported tattoos, many of them elaborate and ornate renditions of the Royal Coat of Arms or the Royal Family Crest.King Alfonso XIIIof modernSpainalso had a tattoo.

    Mrs. M. Stevens Wagner, one of the earliest Tattooed Ladies that performed in the circus sideshows as a \"freak\", 1907

    Tattooing spread among the upper classes all overEuropein the 19th century, but particularly inBritainwhere it was estimated in Harmsworth Magazine in 1898 that as many as one in five members of the gentry were tattooed. There, it was not uncommon for members of the social elite to gather in the drawing rooms and libraries of the great country estate homes after dinner and partially disrobe in order to show off their tattoos. Aside from her consortPrince Albert, there are persistent rumours thatQueen Victoriahad a small tattoo in an undisclosed \'intimate\' location; Denmark\'s King Frederick was filmed showing his tattoos taken as a young sailor.

    Modern Western Tattooing 1900s - Present (The Tattoo Renaissance)[edit]

    Over the past three decades Western tattooing has become a practice that has crossed social boundaries from “low” to “high” class along with reshaping the power dynamics regarding gender. It has its roots in “exotic” tribal practices of the Native Americans and Japanese, which are still seen in present times. Although tattooing has steadily increased in popularity since the invention of the electric tattoo machine in the 1890s, it was not until the 1960s that the place of tattooing in popular culture radically shifted.[2]The Tattoo Renaissance began in the late 1950s, and was greatly influenced by several artists in particularLyle Tuttle,Cliff Raven, Don Nolan, Zeke Owens, Spider Webb, andDon Ed Hardy. A second generation of artists, trained by the first, continued these traditions into the 1970s, and included artists such as Bob Roberts, Jamie Summers, andJack Rudy.[3]In the 1980s, Scholar Arnold Rubin created a collection of works regarding the history of tattoo cultures, publishing them as the \' \'Marks of Civilization\' \' (1988). In this, the term \"Tattoo Renaissance\" was coined, referring to a period marked by technological, artistic, and social change.[4]Wearers of tattoos, as members of thecounterculturebegan to display their body art as signs of resistance to the values of the white, heterosexual, middle-class.[5]The clientele changed from sailors, bikers, and gang members to the middle and upper class. There was also a shift in iconography from the badge-like images based on repetitive pre-made designs known asflashto customized full-body tattoo influenced by Polynesian and Japanese tattoo art, known assleeves, which are categorized under the relatively new and popularAvant-gardegenre.[6]Tattooers transformed into “Tattoo Artists”: men and women with fine art backgrounds began to enter the profession alongside the older, traditional tattooists.

    As various kinds of social movements progressed bodily inscription crossed class boundaries, and became common among the general public. Specifically, the tattoo is one access point for revolutionary aesthetics of women.Feminist theoryhas much to say on the subject . \"Bodies of Subversion: A Secret History of Women and Tattoo\", byMargot Mifflin, became the first history of women\'s tattoo art when it was released in 1997. In it, she documents women\'s involvement in tattooing coinciding to feminist successes, with surges in the 1880s, 1920s, and the 1970s.[7]The earliest appearance of tattoos on women were in thecircusin the late 1800s. These “Tattooed Ladies” were covered - with the exception of their faces, hands, necks, and other readily visible areas - with various images inked into their skin. In order to lure the crowd, the earliest ladies, likeBetty Broadbentand Nora Hildebrandt told tales of captivity; they were usually taken hostage by Native American that tattooed them as a form of torture. However, by the late 1920s the sideshow industry was slowing and by the late 1990s the last tattooed lady was out of business.[8]Today, women use tattoos as forms of bodily reclamations after traumatic experiences like abuse or breast cancer.[9]In 2012, tattooed women outnumbered men for the first time in American history - according to aHarris poll, 23% of women in America had tattoos in that year, compared to 19% of men.[10]

    Religious prohibitions[edit]The Jewish Positions[edit]

    Orthodox Jews, in application ofHalakha(Jewish Law), revealLeviticus19:28prohibits getting tattoos:Do not make gashes in your skin for the dead. Do not make any marks on your skin. I am God.One reading of Leviticus is to apply it only to the specific ancient practice of rubbing the ashes of the dead into wounds; but modern tattooing is included in other religious interpretations. Orthodox/Traditional Jews also point toShulchan Aruch,Yoreh De\'ah180:1, that elucidates the biblical passage above as a prohibition against markings beyond the ancient practice, including tattoos.Maimonidesconcluded that regardless of intent, the act of tattooing is prohibited (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Idolatry 12:11).

    Conservative Jewspoint to the next verse of the Shulchan Aruch (Yoreh De\'ah 180:2), \"If it [the tattoo] was done in the flesh of another, the one to whom it was done is blameless\" – this is used by them to say that tattooing yourself is different from obtaining a tattoo, and that the latter may be acceptable. Orthodox Jews disagree, and read the text as referring to forced tattooing—as was done during theHolocaust—which is not considered a violation of Jewish Law on the part of the victim. In another vein, cutting into the skin to perform surgery and temporary tattooing used for surgical purposes (e.g.: to mark the lines of an incision) are ped in the Shulhan Arukh 180:3.

    In most sectors of the religious Jewish community, having a tattoo does not prohibit participation, and one may be buried in a Jewish cemetery and participate fully in all synagogue ritual.

    Reform JewsandReconstructionist Jewsneither condemn nor condone tattooing.

    Christian Positions[edit]

    Leviticus19:28 is often cited byChristiansas a verse prohibiting tattoos. According to theKing James Version of the Bible, the verse states, \"Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the dead, nor print any marks upon you: I am LORD.\" While it may appear that the passage disallows any markings of the flesh, even applying to the modern-day use of tattoos, it is likely the passage refers specifically to the form of mourning discussed above (seeMiddle East section). Christians who believe that the religious doctrines of theOld Testamentare superseded by theNew Testamentmay still find explicit or implicit directives against tattooing in Christian scripture, in ecclesiastical law, or in church-originated social policy. Others who disapprove or approve of tattoos as a social phenomenon may cite other verses to make their point.

    For example,Revelation14:1 and 17:5 are cited as passages in which names are written on foreheads. In this case, however, it is possibly metaphorical as the language is prophetic.[11]

    There is no prohibition against tattooing within theCatholic Church, provided that the tattoo is not an image directly opposed to Catholic teaching or religious sentiment, and that an inordinate amount of money is not spent on the process. At the Catholic council of Calcuth in Northumberland in 786, a Christian bearing a tattoo \"for the sake of God\" (i.e., a religious tattoo in the form of a cross, a monogramme of Christ, or a saint\'s image) was commended as praiseworthy.

    Muslim positions[edit]

    Due toSharia(or Islamic Law), the majority ofSunniMuslimshold that tattooing is religiously forofferden (along with most other forms of \'permanent\' physical modification). This view arises from references in the PropheticHadithwhich denounce those who attempt to change the creation of God, in what is seen as excessive attempts to beautify that which was already perfected. The human being is seen as having been ennobled by God, the human form viewed as created beautiful, such that the act of tattooing would be a form of mutilation.[12][13]This is however viewed differently inShia Islam, as is it permitted

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